UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION FLOW.IN THE UNIVERSITY OF
CAPE COAST
BY
SAMUEL YAW AMPOFO
Thesis Submitted to the Institute for Educational Planning and
Administration, Faculty of Education, University of Cape Coast, in partial
fulfillment ofthe requirements for the award of Master ofPhilosophy Degree,
in Administration in Higher Education
CLASS NO.
MAY 2008
THE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE CM5T
DECLARATION
Candidate's Declaration
I hireby declare that this thesis is the result ofmy own original research and
no part of it has been presented for another degree in this University or
elsewhere.
~~DCandidate's Signature: .
N!illle: Samuel Yaw Ampofo
Supervisors' Declaration
We hereby declare that the preparation andpresentation ofthe thesis were
supervised in accordance with guidelines on supen1ision ofthesis laid down
by the University ofCape Coast.
Principal Supervisor's Signature: Date~~F~~C~~
Name: Prof. A. A. Kpeglo
,
Co-Sup",vi'o'" Sign,tu"" ~~ .
j-Narhe: Mrs. Janet Alberta Koom:on" ..
~ II
I~.. I' D~Date,h} ...
ABSTRACT
The study considered discovering issues in communication flow in
higher educational institutions with particular reference to the University of
Cape Coast. The purpose of the research was to bring to light the general
perception of the internal publics of the University of Cape Coast on
communication in the institution. It also sought to identify the kinds of formal
and informal channels of communication, the medium of communication used
and its effectiveness, as well as impediments to information flow.
The descriptive survey method was adqpted with a sample size of378,
comprising 20 senior members (non-teaching), 107 senior members
(teaching), 65 senior staff, 151 junior staff, and 35 student leaders. The
questionnaire and interviews were the main instruments employed to collect
data from the respondents. A return rate of 95.8% was achieved for the
questionnaires administered. The main methods used in analyzing the data
were frequency and simple percentage distributions.
The metior findings were that information is communicated amongst
the internal publics mostly through notice boards, bulletins and memoranda,
and semantic problems, poor listening habits, 'mistrust, poor human relations,
faulty communication equipments, serve as major barriers to information flow.
Some recommendations made were that the office of the Dean of student
affairs must occasionally organize planned fora for students to give updates on
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pertinent issues in the university, noise in the communication process must be
reduced to the barest minimum, beauraucracy and red-tapism should be
minimized as much as possible and communication equipments should be
regularly maintained to reduce breakdown in information flow.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge the Almighty God as the author of my thesis for His
guidance and inspiration which have sustained me throughout my academic
pursuits. If I have come this far then it is the unmerited favour of God who has
blessed me with life, strength and wisdom, and I believe this same God has a
purpose for the successful completion of this thesis.
Profound gratitude also goes to my supervisors Prof. A. Amuzu
Kpeglo and Mrs Janet Koomson for their readiness and profound interest in
the subject matter, their effective supervision, constructive criticisms and
contributions which enabled the achievement of the objectives of the study. I
am also grateful to all other lecturers and non-teaching staff of IEPA for their
support throughout the years I spent with them as a student.
An appreciable co-operation from the lecturers, administrators, senior
and junior staff, and student leaders of the University of Cape Coast who were
used in the study contributed immensely to its successful conduct. Specific
mention is made of Mr. Jeff Onyame (Senior Assistant Registrar -P.R.O) and
Mr. Daniel Turkson (Assistant Registrar- Publications). Above all, special
thanks go to all those known and unknown who through diverse means
supported me in life and more importantly in the development of this thesis
especially my mother, Mrs. Cecilia Ampofo.
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DEDICATION
This study is dedicated to my wife, MrS. Ekua Otua Ampofo for the
support, advice, encouragement, and love exhibited throughout this period of
study. It is also dedicated to my sons Kofi Oheneba Ampofo and Fiifi
Nyameyie Ampofo.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ONE INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Statement ofthe Problem
Research Questions
Purpose ofthe Study
Significance of the Study
Delimitation
Limitations
Definition ofTerms
Organization of the Study
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TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 11
Meaning ofCommunication
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Importance ofCommunication 16
Media of Communication 17
Oral Communication 17
Written Communication 18
Visual Communication 19
Non-Verbal Communication 19
Principles of Effective Communication 20
The Communication Processrrheory 22
Channels of Communication 24
Formal Communication Channels 25
Vertical Communication Channel 26
Downward Communication Channel 26
Upward Communication Channel 27
Lateral Communication Channel 28
Diagonal Communication Channel 29
Informal Communication Channel 30
The Grapevine 30
Location of the Grapevine 31
Formal Vs Informal Channels of Communication 32
Reasons for Grapevine Communication 34
How Accurate is the Grapevine 34
Barriers to Effective Communication 36
Lack ofCommunicationSkiJls 36
Selective Perceptions 37
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Filtering
Poor Listening
Semantic Barriers
Emotional State
Communication Overload
Differing Frames ofReference
Source Credibility
Improving Communication in Administration of
Tertiary Institutions
Regulating Information Flow
Utilizing Feedback
Clarity ofExpressions
Encouraging Active Listening
Managing Emotions
The Internet
Importance of the Internet
Services on the Internet
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Meaning ofPublic Relations
Importance ofPublic Relations
A Short History ofthe Public Relations Department
ofthe University of Cape Coast
Personnel
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I Channels of Communication Commonly
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I Downward Communication Channel 78
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, Upward Communication Channel 80
Horizontal Communication Channel 82
Diagonal Communication Channel 84
Grapevine Communication 85
Media of Communication Commonly used to
Disseminate Information among the Internal
Publics ofthe University 87
Bulletin 87
University Calendar 89
Students' Handbook 91
Vice Chancellor's Report 92
Memoranda 94
Notice Boards 95
Electronic Media 96
Bill Boards 99
Suggestion Box 100
Seminars and Workshops 102
Barriers to Communication Flow in the
University of Cape Coast 104
Semantic Problem 104
Poor Listening Habits 106
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I Mistrust and Credibility 109I
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110I Poor Human Relations!
Faulty Communication Equipments 111
Noise as Barrier 114
Other Problems 115
Minimizing the Impediments to Communication
Flow in the University of Cape Coast 117
Utilizing Feedback 118
Timely Delivery of Information 119
Clarity of Information 120
Choice of Media 122
The Internet 123
Frequent Departmental Meetings 125
Defined Communication Channel 126
Organizing For a for Students 128
Other Strategies 130
FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDAnONS
. Summary ofFindings
Conclusions
Recommendations
REFERENCES
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'.i-j APPENDICESI
I A Copy of the Introduction Letter 146I
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i B Questionnaire for Faculty Members, AdministrativeI
I Staff and Students on Issues in Communication
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I Flow in the University of Cape Coast 147j
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I C Interview Guide for the Senior Assistant
I Registrar for Public Relations 01) Issues in
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I Communication Flow in the University of Cape
! Coast 155
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I D Interview Guide for the Assistant
I Registrar for Publications on Issues in
Communication Flow in the University ofCape
Coast 156
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IIII LIST OF TABLES
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I Distribution of Respondents by Gender 63
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I 2 Distribution ofRespondents by Highest Educational
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i Status of the Respondents in the University 65i 3
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Importance of Communication 67I 4I
Communication Flow in the University ofCape Coast 69I 5
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I 6 Relevance ofCommunication 71
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I 7 Written Communication 73
I 8 Written Communication 74
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I 9 The use ofNonverbal Communication 76I
I 10 Respondents' View on the use ofDownward Communication 78I
I II Views on the use ofUpward Communication 80
12 Views on the use ofHorizontal Communication 83
I 13 Respondents' Views on Diagonal Communication 84I'
14 Grapevine as a Means of Communication 85
15 The Use of Bulletin in the Dissemination ofInformation 88
16 The use the University Calendar in the Dissemination of
Information 89
17 The use ofthe Students' Handbook in the Dissemination of
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Information 91
18 Information from the Vice -Chancellor's (V.Co's) Report 92
19 Obtaining Information from Memoranda 94
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Clearly Defined Communication Channels
Organizing Fora for Students
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LIST OF FlGURE.5
Figurc Pagc
Sh:mnon nnd Wcnvcr's Model ofConlnlunicalion. 22
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Communication plays a major role in nearly every aspect of life. Effective
communication does not only help us solve problems but can also improve our
lives. Communication experts believe that poor communication is at the root of
many problems. Understanding the theory and principles of good communication
and putting them to practice, can solve disputes between friends, countries,
management and labour, teachers and students, and husbands and wives, to name
only a few. Effective communication cannot solve all the world's problems, but it
can solve or help avoid a lot of them.
Communication also plays a role in improving lives. Think about all the
situations in which you use verbal and nonverbal communication in your life - for
instance, going to school, meeting friends, and courting someone you love. And
how would we celebrate major occasions and milestones such as graduations,
birthdays, weddings and anniversaries without communication? Huss (2002)
Clearly, communication plays a pivotal role in our lives. Thus, regardless
of one's interests and goals, the ability to communicate effectively will enhance
and enrich one's life. In fact all facets of society these days need results-oriented,
seasoned professionals who are good communicators and innovative in nature.
It is therefore not surprising at all that most employers these days seek for
applicants who have excellent presentation, verbal and written communication
skills to employ in various organizations. For an organization to achieve its basic
goals successfully therefore, an effective communication system must be
developed and implemented.
Communication is a word and a concept that comes up in all kinds of fora
and circumstances. It is generally agreed that "good communication" is essential
to any well-run organization. Thus, communication is one of the c?re
management processes at any level of an organization in general and the
university in particular, as staff in particular need to receive information that is
meaningful to their work and their commitments to the organization.
Claude (1985) defines communication as the transfer of information and
understanding from one person to another. It is successful only when a mutual
understanding takes place - when both the sender and the receiver of the
communication understand it. It is not necessary that they agree with an idea in
order for them to have a successful communication. The understanding of an idea
however, is very vital for a successful communication.
Communication can take place in many ways. You can communicate
directly by talking or tapping, or indirectly by gestures (thumbs down, meaning
"on good"), by actions (a pat on the back, drumming your fingers or tapping your
foot), by facial expressions, by tone of voice and so on. (Claude 1985 p.64). Thus,
communication may take the form of oral communication, written
communication, visual communication, audio- visual communication or non _
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verbal communication.
Peretomode (1992) also defines communication as the transfer of
information or messages from a source that becomes the property of both the
sender and receiver. Cole (1986) suggests that communication is a mutual
interchange of ideas, feelings and opinions. Thus, communication is any means by
which a thought is transferred from one person to another. Communication in
another dimension is seen as sharing messages, ideas or attitudes that produce a
degree ofunderstanding between a sender and a receiver (Hoy and Miskel, 1982).
The importance of communication to every organization, including the
teaching - learning enterprise cannot be over emphasized. In fact, the purpose of
communication may be summarized as decision-making, organizing, influencing
and activating or initiating action. According to a classic work-sampling study of
136 managers, 81 percent of the typical manager's workday was devoted to
communication (Donnelly et ai, 1987). Various forms of communication with
peers, subordinates, suppliers and customers take place in any organization. It is
an undeniable fact that an organization cannot function unless individuals within
it can communicate with one another and are willing to contribute freely, their
actions towards achieving shared goals and objectives.
Communication influences decision making which is very essential to
organizational survival and achievement of organizational goals. The quality of
any decision-making is largely dependent on the quality of information
communicated.
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Communication among the internal publics of the University of Cape
Coast flows along the organizational structure as depicted in the organizational
chart of the institution. Information such as job descriptions, instructions,
procedures and policy statements is transmitted from people in the position of
higher authority to people in positions of lower authority. Thus, the central
administration passes on information to the faculties, schools, and departments,
units, halls of residence and other sections of the university. On the other hand,
messages such as grievances, appeals and feedback are transmitted from the
people in the position of lower authority to those in the position of higher
authority.
According to Donelly, Gibson & Ivancevich (1987) whether it be on a
person-to-person basis, nation to nation, in large organizations or in small groups,
breakdowns in communication is seen to be pervasive. Problems may arise in
organizations where directives are misinterpreted or distorted or when casually
joking in a work group leads to anger.
Kreitner, (1983), emphasizes that because communication is a complex,
give and take process, numerous problems occur and these are barriers to
communication. The barriers may be within the individual or within the
organization. He emphasizes these barriers to include process barriers, physical
barriers, semantic barriers, and psychological barriers.
The issue of .effective communication has been and continues to be a
topical one and of major concern to various facets of society. Research according
to Mitzberg [1975] indicates that managers often spend between 50 and 90
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percent of their time talking to people. A similar view is shared by Claude [1985],
who asserts that most first-line supervisors spend between 50 and 60 % of their
time communicating with their employees.
Statement of the Problem
An administrator communicates with a variety of people in a number of
different ways about specific situations, problems or issues. As a communicator,
an administrator needs to be aware of some basic aspects of communication.
However, this does pot seem to be the norm in most institutions, including the
University of Cape Coast. For instance at the beginning of the 2002/2003
academic year, the Students Representative Council of the University of Cape
Coast held a press conference to reject the new accommodation policy of the
university (ie. the In-Out-Out-In). Their main reason was that the university
authorities did not inform them before this decision which concerns them, was
taken. This suggests that there was a communication gap.
In another development, members of the University Teachers Association
of Ghana (UTAG) embarked on a sit down strike at the beginning of the
2003/2004 academic year to press home their demand for better conditions of
service. In the September OS, 2003 edition of the Ghanaian Times, No.14160
ISSN 0855-1503 the Minister of Education in reacting to the issue, said the
lecturers would not have gone on strike if the information of an on-going
discussion on the matter had been effectively communicated to the members of
the association by their leadership. These instances clearly show that barriers to
communication flow can result in unpleasant situations.
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This study therefore seeks to find out the impediments to communication
flow among the internal publics of the Universityof Cape Coast.
Purpose of the St,udy
The main focus of this study was to assess the situation of communication
and information flow in the University of Cape Coast. It also sought to identify
the formal and informal channels of communication, which aid the dissemination
of information among the internal publics of the university.
Additionally, the study sought to identify the media of communication
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used to disseminate information among the internal publics of the university as
well as determine how effective they have been. Finally, this study tried to find
out impediments that disrupt the process of communication and make suggestions
that would help to improve the communication process in the University of Cape
Coast.
Research Questions
The researcher hopes to find answers to the following research questions:
- 1. What is the general perception of the internal publics of the University of
Cape Coast on communication in the institution?
2. What kinds of formal and informal channels of communication exist
within the University of Cape Coast and to what extent have they been
successful in the dissemination of information among the internal publics
of the institution?
3. In the view of lecturers, administrators, senior and junior staff, as well as
students, what medium of communication is used in the dissemination of
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4.
information within the University of Cape- Coast and to what extent are
they effective?
In the perception of the internal publics of the university of Cape Coast,
what impediments hinder the smooth flow of information within the
institution?
5. In the perception of the internal publics of the university of Cape Coast
what strategies can be employed to minimize the impediments?
Significance of the Study
The eventual importance of this study is varied and enormous. Firstly, the
results of the study would benefit the institution in which it is conducted - the
University of Cape Coast. This is because the real state of communication and
information flow in the university would come to light so as to inform
management's decisions in shaping the institution's communication policy to
enhance efficient dissemination of information within the university community.
Secondly, it would identify some of the routes/channels of communication
in the university system which would help improve the administrators' way of
communicating with his subordinates and hence ensure effective and efficient
running of the institution.
Again, the study is expected to unearth some of the problems associated
with information flow among the internal publics of the university and measures
that can be implemented by the authorities to reduce these barriers in order to
enhance good interpersonal relationship among the university community.
Findings of the research are also expected to be applicable to the other
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universities in the country in helping to improcYe communication among its
internal public such as lecturers, support staff and students. It would also serve as
the basis for further research in the near future on the 'area ofcommunication flow
in higher educational institutions.
Finally, the findings of the study would help to promote peace,
understanding ~d tranquility among the internal publics of the university,
especially between the administrators and the students in order to enhance smooth
academic work on the university campus.
Delimitations
There are five public universities as well as a number of private
universities scattered all over Ghana. However, this study will concentrate on the
University of Cape Coast (UCC) in the Central Region of Ghana. The region is
endowed with another university (University of Education, Winneba) but the
researcher would delimit the study to U.C.C. Thus the target population and
sample for the study will all be obtained within the confines of the university
campus. The study was limited to UCC because the categories of respondents
were enough to provide useful information for a study of this nature.
Limitations
The researcher had difficulty with the collection and return of some of the
questionnaires. As indicated, not all the distributed copies of the questionnaire
were received as envi~aged. In all, 362 out of the total of 378 were retrieved. The
researcher believed that this formed a significant representation of the
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of the study.
were not captureq. These views however could also have enhanced the outcome
publics ofthe institution were not sampled for the study. Therefore their views
were mostly involved in the communication process .The rest of the internal
spread from the source to the receiver
The channel through which information is
Operational Definition of Terms
Media
ofthe study.
Again, the study focused on only the internal publics of the university who
respondents' views which were not recorded but cq~ld have enriched the outcome
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Management The policy-making body of an organization. It is
also the top most personnel in an organization
Publics Any identifiable group that an organization relates
to
Feedback The reaction ofpeople to a message
Channel The pattern of flow of information
Organization of the Study
The study has been put into five main chapters as indicated below:
Chapter one looked at introduction, statement of the problem, research
questions, purpose of the study and significance of the study. It also included
delimitations, limitations, definition ofterms and organization of the study.
Chapter two mainly looked at the literature review on the meaning of
communication, importance of communication, media of communication and
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principles of effective communication. It also ~onsidered the communication
process, channels of communication, barriers to effective communication,
improving communication in the administration of tertiary institutions and the
history of the public relations department of the University of Cape Coast.
Chapter three gave a detailed overview of the research methodology. This
covered areas of the study such as the characteristics of respondents, rcsearch
design, population sampling, and data collection procedure as well as data
analysis.
Chapter four concentrated on the presentation, analysis and discussion of
findings. Chapter five consisted of summary, conclusion and recommendations.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Over the years, a lot of studies have been conducted on communication in
general and the channels of communication flow in particular. This section of the
research seeks to review some of the studies conducted on this subject. The
review of the literature was to aid the researcher to get a clearer mental picture of
the problem and also help him to obtain the needed information and methods to
carry out the research successfully. The review is broken down into:
1. Meaning of Communication
n. Importance of Communication
lll. Media of Communication
iv. Principles of Effective Communication
v. The Communication Process
v!. Channels of Communication
vn. Barriers to Effective Communication
Vlll. Improving Communication in Administration ofTertiary
Institutions
ix. A Short History of the Public Relations Department of the
University of Cape Coast
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Meaning of Communication
Communication is a concept, which is difficult to define. Indeed the
concept is said to be one of the hackneyed tenns in the lexicon of social sciences.
However, communication is the essence of all relationships. It is central to
control, vital for survival, and is essential for all, both employers and employees
in any working environment.
Bouachie Mensah (2000) defines communication as the process by which
people exchange infonnation by means of the transmission of symbolic messages.
For communication to be effective, the message received must be essentially the
same as the message that was sent. According to Cherry as sited in Mc Clure &
Samuels (1982), communication may not be defined in tenns of the response
itself but the relationship set up by the transmission of stimuli and the evocation
of response.
Claude (1985) defines communication as the transfer of infonnation and
understanding from one person to another. It is successful only when a mutual
lmderstanding takes place - when both the sender and the receiver of the
communication understand it. It is not necessary that they agree with an idea in
order for them to have a successful communication. It is however, necessary that
they understand an idea in order to have a successful communication.
In the view ofThaye (1968), communication as a process can occur at four
different levels;
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i) intrapersonal,
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ii) interpersonal,
iii) organizational,
iv) teclmological.
The Intrapersonal communication is the first level of communication. It
focuses on internal behavior, such as observing, listening, reading, speaking, and
writing. The second level of communication is the Interpersonal level. At this
level, two or more people exchange thoughts. They may be sharing information,
providing feedback or simply maintaining a social relationship. The
organizational level of communication occurs on the networks that link
organizational members together.
The teclmological level of communication concerns more than such
hardware as telephone, intercoms, copying machines, computers, and two-way
radios. Lee Thayer broadly describes the technological level as the focus upon the
technology of communication including equipment, apparatlls, and lor the
formalised progranmles for generating, storing, processing, translating,
distributing, or displaying data - either for consumption by other pieces of
equipment or for the ultimate translation into information and consumption by
human beings.
Durbin (1975) sees communication as a two-way process and warns
organizations not to see it as a means of telling their side of the story. They
should rather ensure a two-way flow of information whereby the views,
grievances and criticisms of others are seen as half of a total communication
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process. Since the objective is to establish mutual understanding, a two-way
communication process will ensure that the parties involved satisfy their desire to
hear and be heard. In his opinion, they need to kriow their interests are well
catered for. This is because ignoring the views of any of an organization's publics
is detrimental to the well being of the organization itself.
Other scholars have also observed that good communication patterns
between an organization's staff can affect higher productivity. They are of the
opinion that effective channels of communication between employees and
management for example can remove many impediments such as personal
grievances and other problems all of which have the effect of lowering morale
and productivity.
Supporting this view, RoetWisberger (1943) writing on what in his view
constitutes adequate personnel management, identifies as the first human problem
in any organization, the problem ofsecuring the cooperation ofpeople in attaining
its collective purpose. He observes that people can work together effectively when
there are effective communication channels through which employees can learn
about their duties and obligations in relation to the economic purpose.
He also identifies as more important, the existence of communication
channels between the junior and senior staff for the purpose of opening up
avenues through which management can inform and also educate workers about
their decisions, plans. and intentions and also learn about the reactions of the
workers to such decisions and plans.
Besides, communication, being informative and educative tool in
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administration, it can be used to mould attitudes, persuade, convince and
influence behavior. Prior (1973) opines tha~ effective communication is a
prerequisite to good consumer relations, which in turn will put the organization on
a sound footing. He stresses that "One key to improved consumer relations is
more and better communications, free of jargon and ambiguity". He, however,
observes, "sound communication must be based on positive and innovative action
to improve consumer services". In order for communication to achieve its
complete effectiveness, it must not end with words but these words must be
backed by very concrete and tangible deeds being performed and seen to be
performed by the organization. Promises, in his view, are not enough. They
achieve significance when they have been honoured.
Writing on the effectiveness of communication, Pinsdorf (1975) quotes
Peter Droker as saying in his "Practice of Management" that information is the
manager's main vehicle for operating. He was of the view that a leader can
motivate, guide and organize people to perform their own work most effectively
through the spoken or written word. It is an undeniable fact that communication is
an integral part of many problems of productivity, turnover, morale and
absenteeism. Unfortunately, Pinsdorf observes that the concern of
communications specialists has often tended to focus on the way to get their
messages across while virtually neglecting the message itself. She consequently
calls for greater attention to the quality of the message as well as that of the
people involved rather than the over-reliance on machines and tecImology.
"Wordiness, executive isolation, following fads and the failure to even be aware
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of another's point of view are prime enemies of communication". According to
her, "The quality of the people involved, the messages they send each other, the
quality of what is said, all are vitally important, much more so than the media
which we have over-concentrated in years past".
Communication can take place in many ways. You can communicate
directly by talking or tapping, or indirectly by gestures (thumbs down, meaning"
on good"), by actions (a pat on the back, drumming your fingers or tapping your
foot), by facial expressions, by tone of voice and so on. (Claude, 1985 p.64).
Thus, communication may take the form of oral communication, written
communication, visual communication, audio- visual communication or non -
verbal communication
Importance of Communication
The importance of communication as a tool for organizational success
development cannot be over emphasized. Various individuals, families,
organizations and countries would have been in severe crisis if not for the
existence of communication as a means of interaction among these groups.
Studying communication comprehensively offers a number ofadvantages.
Communication can improve the way you see yourself. Self-confidence is
greatly improved if one knows how to communicate effectively in a variety of
situations from interpersonal relationship to public speeches. It can also improve
how others see you since most people like communicating with others who can
communicate well. In another sense, one can increase what he knows about
human relationship since you have the opportunity of knowing how people relate
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to each other and about what type of communication is appropriate for a given
situation.
Communication IS the core of almost every profession. Transmitting
information from one person to another, from one organization to another or a
combination of both, and to the shareholders and other stakeholders of the
organization is mostly dependent on communication.
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Media of Communication
Much has been written on the various forms of communication. Bouachie
Mensah (2000), asserts that communication c~ be put into five main categories.
These are oral communication, written communication, visual communication and
non-verbal communication. According to him all these five activities operate in
both business and non-business settings.
Oral Communication
This involves the spoken word. It is the dissemination of information
either verbally through a medium or in a face - to - face contact between the
sender and the receiver. Oral communication takes the form of telephone calls,
interviews, speeches, staff meetings, messenger, public address system and inter-
con.
A research by Mitzberg (1975) indicates that managers often spend
between 50 and 90% of their time talking to people. In the view of Evans (1994),
oral communication also includes oral briefing, seminars, presentations, tele and
audio conferencing and training sessions.
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Oral communication has the advantages of p~ysicalproximity and usually
both sight and sound of sender and receiver, allow for instant interchange of
opinions, views, and attitudes. Lengel and Draft '(1988) observe that oral
communication ensures instantaneous feed back, easier to convince or persuade
and above all, allows for contribution and participation from all present.
On the other hand this medium of communication has the disadvantage of
. . ,
becoming difficult to control when a number of people take part. In times like
that, there is less time to think things out - hence quality of decision-making may
be inferior. There are often no written records of what has been said; sometimes
disputes result over what was agreed.
Written Communication
This is the process of transferring information from one place to another
in a written or documented form. Written communication according to Gibson
and Hodgetts (1986) is word-processed. This includes letters, memoranda,
reports, minutes, mail-merged circulars, email messages, faxed and telex
documents, queries, bulletins, house journals and notices. In the view of Bouchie
Mensah (2000), added to all the above are statements of procedures, policies and
methods designed to regulate business activities communicated often in written
forms. (pp. 205).
In assessing the importance of the various media of communication,
Haney (1992) contends that written communication provides written record and
evidence of dispatch and receipt; is capable of relaying complex ideas, provides
analysis, evaluation and summary; disseminates information to dispersed
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receivers, can confirm, interpret and cYanrY ~~al co~unications; and forms basis
ofcontract or agreement.
On the contrary, Haney (1992) asserts that written communication has the
limitation of taking time to produce and can be very expensive. Also
communication tends to be more formal and distinct and can cause problems of
interpretation; in~tant feedback is not possible; it is difficult to modify message
once dispatched; does not allow for the exchange of views/ options except over a
period oftime.
Visual Communication
This is the method of communication in which pictorial appeal is made to
the receiver. It makes it possible for the receiver to see the information being
transmitted. Visual communication takes the form of posters, diagrams, flow
charts, and cartoons. They make an impression by appealing to the eye.
It has the merit of a large audience being reached at the same time. Also, it
can be used for future reference and creates a long lasting impression as the
receiver can picture the message in his mind. The main delimitation however, is
the fact that it is time consuming to put information into a pictorial form, and is
very expenSIve. Also, different meanings may be assigned to the same
presentation.
Non-verbal Communication
According to Wright & Noe (1995), nonverbal communication is
communicating through a channel that does not use words.It may include body
language as well as other signals such as what people wear and what objects they
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surround themselves with.. In the VIew of Fiske (1994), non- verbal
communication is carried on through presentational codes such as gestures, eye
movements, or qualities of voice. These codes can give messages only about the
here and now. (pp.67)
Evans (1994) observes that non-verbal communication may also take the
form of posture of expressions. This medium of communication reinforces oral
communication; provides additional visual stimulus, simplifies written or spoken
word. Research finding indicate that 55% of a message is transmitted through
facial expression and body movement and that another 38% is conveyed in
reflection. This goes to confirm the observation made by Fiske (1994) that non-
verbal communication is to convey indexial information.
Principles of Effective Communication
The communication system used by an organization must be able to
convey large amounts of information quickly to and from the data sources and the
decision-makers. At the same time the system must transmit accurate and timely
information to the places that need it.
The American Management Association has suggested the following
criteria for good communication as sited in Bouachie Mensah (2000).
I. The communicator must clarify his or her ideas before communicating
2. The true purpose of each message or communication must be examined.
3. There needs to 1?e consultation with others in planning communications, so
conflicting or unintelligible messages are not sent.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The communicator needs to be mindful of the oveliones of the message,
which he or she is communicating, as well as its basic content.
Opportunities should be taken to convey something of help or value to the
receiver.
Communications should be followed up to check that the intended
meaning has been understood.
Communications should not be determined solely by the needs of present,
but the communicator should also have tomorrow in mind.
Actions need to support communicl:,ltions, or else conflicting and
contradictory messages will be transmitted to the receiver.
9. Good communication depends on a willingness to listen and understand.
In addition to what has been said, Bush and Frohman (1991) are of the view that
the following principles could also be identified for effective communication:
I
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The sender of a message should use clear and concise language and should bear in
mind the objectives of the communication. This should help overcome potential
barriers to communication such as faulty translations and transmissions.
2. Attention
There is the need for due attention to be paid by the one at the receiving end of
information.
3. Integrity
The integrity of an organization rests partly on supporting the position of
subordinate managers. It is therefore important that senior management should
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whenever possible, use the existing ~et work of c0IIlnlunications according to the
accepted line ofauthority.
4. Trust
Trust is vital to effective interpersonal communication. Subordinates would only
send accurate and open messages to their superiors if only they could trust them.
5. Choice of Media
It is important for the most appropriate media to be used. Face-to-face must be
used for interview, meeting and conference, oral communication must make use
of telephones, radio, etc and memos, letters, circulars, manuals and newspapers
for the written communication. (pp. 204).
The Communication Process I Theory
To make the most resources available, managers have to carefully develop
and maintain an effective communication system. One of the communication
theories that has gained currency as the main seed out of which communication
studies has grown is that of Shannon and Weaver (1949). It is a clear example of
process school, which sees communication as the transmission of messages.
Their basic model of communication presents it as a simple linear process, as
depicted in figure 1.
1I Semler ~ I En~ode ~ ~TT:r;:;;an~s-;;~~'ft},===J
Noise
Feedback
5
Figure 1: Shannon and Weaver'~Model of Communication.
(Source: Fiske J. (1994 pp.7).
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From Figure 1, it is clear that there aJ.:e five mam stages in the
communication process. The very first stage is the sender. The whole
communication is based on perception. The sender initiates a message received
from certain stimuli from the environment that are perceived as requiring
attention. The purpose of initiating the communication is to transmit information
about what is perceived to be a second person.
The second stage is encoding. This refers to the transmission of
information into a message in the form of symbols with a shared meaning. The
symbols may take forms such as spoken or written words, and commonly
understood gestures, colours and pictographs. According to Bouachie Mensah
(2000), the major form ofencoding is language.'
The third step in the process of communication IS to transmit the
information. It involves the conveyance of communication symbols from the
sender ofthe message to the receiver, either verbally or non-verbally.
The forth stage of the communication process is to receive and decode the
message. This involves two-step process. First, the receiving means one or more
ofthe receiver's senses register the message and second the decoding which refers
to interpreting what the message means.
Finally, there is a response in the fonn of a feedback. An immediate
response is expected from the receiver of the message. This provides a channel
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for receiver response, which enables the commun.icator to ascertain whether the
message has been received and yielded the expected response. (Evans 1994)
It is important to stress that noise may occur in the communication
process. According to McQuail (1972), noise is anything that is added to the
signal between its transmission and reception that is not intended by the source.
This can be distortion of sound or crackling in a telephone wire, static in radio
signal or 'snow' on a television screen. In the view of Wright and Noe (1995),
noise is "anything that distorts a message by interfering with the communication
process" (pp.486). It may take the form of ambiguous wording of a message, a
worn printer ribbon that makes a document hard to read or distractions that
prevents the receiver from paying attention.
Channels of Communication
The term "Channels of Communication" according to Wood (1999) refers
to the formal or informal processes by which the message gets from the sender to
the receiver. Thus, he asserts that staff of an organization must understand the
reasons for change and the process adopted to make decisions and implement
those changes. For this to happen, it is important that there be clearly defined
channels of communication and that the staff receive information that is
meaningful to their work and their commitment to the organization.
Hampton (1981) is of the view that managers are the architects of
organizational comm:unication structures. They design and redesigIl those so that
people in the organization can interact and communicate when necessary to
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accomplish their work. The more the structures. facilitate needed information
processing, the more it contributes to effectiveness.
Evans (1994) sees the channels of communication as the routes of
communication. In the view of Draft and Steers (1992) as sited in Wright and Noe
(1995), channels of communication may also be referred to as directions of
communication.. The channels of communication may be put into two broad
categories. These are Formal Channels of Communication and InfOimal
Communication Channels
The Formal Communication Channels
This description is applied to those communications, which are routed
through what is called 'official channels'. They are the officially designated and
recognized channels by the organization for the conveyance of official messages
inside and outside the organization. (Bouachie Mensah 2000, pp.206). The
organization structure and organization chart determines these channels. In the
University of Cape Coast for instance, the direction of flow of information is
detemlined officially by the laid down organization chart and structure.
Formal communication in the view of Daft and Steers (1992) is the
communication that flows along the organization's lines of authority or task
responsibility. They further contend that, there are logically three directions in
which a message can travel. These are the vertical, lateral and diagonal
communication.
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Vertical Communication Ch.annel
This term is used to describe the principal channel for routing directives,
instructions and policies from top decision makers doWn through the organization
to the people who, at various levels will implement them. Thus, the vertical
channel of communication consists of communication up and down the
organization's chain of command and lines of'authority. It takes place between
superiors and subordinates. It is the official channel used to communicate:
(i) policies
(ii) plans
(iii) instructions
(iv) suggestions
(v) reports
(vi) complaints
The vertical channel can flow downward from a superior or higher level
to a subordinate. It may also be upwards from a lower level to a higher one. In
other words, supervisors use downward channels to send messages to employees
whiles employees use upward channels to send messages to the supervisors.
Downward Channel of Communication
This route of communication carries information from people in the
position of higher authority to people in positions of lower authority or
subordinates. Job des~riptions, instructions, procedures, policy statements and
official memos have been identified to be among the most common forms of
downward communication (Jablin, 1979). Means of downward communications
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•include the use of loudspeakers periodicals, telephones, messengers, committees,
staff meetings, handbook, company bulletins or house journals, bells, circulars,
queries, job instructions, organizational policy, procedures and practices,
employee performance feedback and indoctrination ofcompany goals.
According to Evans (1994), the downward flow of communication is most
frequently channeled through an organization's 'line of authority' from manager
to subordinate in a 'report to' relationship.
Upward Channel of Communication
In upward communication, the message is directed toward a higher level
ill the organizational hierarchy. It involves the flow of opinions, ideas,
complaints, suggestions and other information from someone of lower level or
subordinate in tlle organization to the superior. Another school of thought such as
Wright and Noe (1995) see it as taking the form ofprogress reports or information
about successes and failures of individuals or work groups reporting to the
receiver of the message. Sometimes, employees also send suggestions or
::omplaints upward through the organization's hierarchy. Some of the most
commonly used tools for upward communication are group meetings, suggestion
boxes and reports to superiors. It may also involve collective bargaining, appeals,
open door policy and expression ofgrievances.
According to Gibson & Hodgetts (1986), less is known about upward
communication in mo~t organizations. They stressed that one consis:ent finding is
that employee satisfaction with upward communication tends to be lower than
their satisfaction with downward communication. Also, Larkin & Larkin (1994)
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found low levels of satisfaction with all the strategies commonly used to enhance
upward communication, including employee surveys, suggestion programs,
employee grievance programs and employee partiCipation programs such as
quality circles and team meetings. In the view of Donnelly et al (1987) however,
effective upward communication is important because they provide employees
with opportunities to have a say. Also top management depends on subordinates
for vital information.
According to Gibson & Hodgetts (1986) several management - based
reasons can be given for this lack of satisfaction. These include the fact that most
of these strategies do not involve two-way communication, are not packaged well,
are poorly timed, and are apt to trigger defensiveness on the part ofmanagers.
In addition, McClelland (1988) found a number of employee-based
reasons why upward communication tends to be poor. Notable among them are
fear of reprisals, filters and the fact that managers give the impression that they do
not have time to listen to employees.
Lateral Communications Channel
This channel of communication is also referred to as horizontal
communication. Lateral communication occurs at all levels of an organization and
is generally mm"ked by the increased frankness and ease with which groups at
similar levels communicate. (Evans I994,pp 28).
Lateral communication may be described as the communic<:tion between
departments of an organization that generally follows the work flow, thus
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providing a direct channel for co-ordination ~d problem solving (Stonner &
Freeman, 1992)
This channel of communication is often overlooked in the design of most
organizations. Effective organizations also need horizontal communication. It is
necessary for the co-ordination ofdiverse organizational function. (Donnelly et aI,
1987). In the view of Frank (1984) while recent trends to flatten organizations
have enhanced the importance of lateral communication, studies on lateral
communications still lag behind those on vertical communication.
Diagonal Communication
Diagonal Communication refers to communication between managers and
workers located in different functional divisions (Wilson 1992). Although both
vertical and horizontal communication continues to be important, these terms no
longer adequately capture communication needs and flows in most modem
organizations. The concept of diagonal communication was introduced to capture
the new communication challenges associated with new organizational forms,
such as matrix and project - based organizations. Also, with the rise of network
organizations, communication flows can no longer be restricted to vertical and
horizontal.
In the view of Donnelly et al (1987), although diagonal communication
probably is the least. used channel of communication in organizations, it is
important in situation in which members cannot communicate effectively through
othel channels. Thus in such situations, the use of a diagonal channel would
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minimize the time and effect expended by the organization. Every effort must be
made by the university authorities to encourage the use of diagonal
communication to solve diverse organizational problems such as conflicts and
inter-departmental friction in the university at relatively lower cost.
Informal Communication Channel
Infonnal communication channel is any means through which infonnation
flows outside the fonnal channels and is used by people to transmit casual,
personal and social interchanges at work. This is also referred to popularly as the
grapevine. According to Lesikar, Petit, Flatley (1999) such communication
follows no set pattern. They fonn an ever-changing and infinitely complex
structure linking all the members of the organization.
The Grapevine
Grapevine refers to the infonnal transmission of infonnation, gossip or
nunor from person to person" The grapevine is the infonnal and unsanctioned
infonnation network within every organization. "The network helps employees
make sense of the world around them and con~equently provides a release from
emotional stress and all infornlal infonnation is undocumented".(Simmons,
1985). Keith Davis (1969) discovered in his study that organizational Grapevine
is an expression of healthy human motivation to communicate: "In fact, if
employees are so uni~terested in their work that they do not engaf:e in shoptalk
about it, they are probably maladjusted. Of all the things tlmt the grapevine has
been called, it is foremost-a communications network".(Rosnow &Fine, 1976)
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Since it is unstructured and not unde~ complete control of management, it
moves through the organization in every direction. "It moves upwards,
downward, and diagonally, within and without chains of command, between
workers and managers, and even with and without a company."(Davis, 1969)
The term grapevine can be traced to Civil War days when vinelike
telegraph wires were strung from tree across battlefields and used by Army
Intelligence (Kreitner, 1983).The messages that came over these lines were often
so confusing or inaccurate that as soon any rumor was said to come from the
grapevine people get together in groups (Hicks & Gullet, 1975).The lines of
communication seem to be haphazard and easily disrupted as the telegraph wires
were, however, they transmit information rapidly and in many cases faster and
with a stronger impact than the formal system allows.
Location of the Grapevine
Since the grapevine arises from social interactions, it is as fickle, dynanlic,
and varied as people are. It is the expression of their natural motivation to
communicate. It is the exercise of their freedom of speech and is a natural, nOlmal
activity. The grapevine starts early in the morning in the car pools, once everyone
has arrived at work, grapevine activity takes. place nearly all day long down
hallways, around corners, in meetings, and especially by the coffee machine. The
peak time of the days are breaks and lunch hour during which management has
little or no control over the topics of time intervals, some employees meet again.
They are on company softball teams, golf leagues, and bowling teams. The
grapevine at that time goes into full swing again and remains active with one final
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activity peak at a local bar. The following day, the cycle is repeated. It is the wide
range of locations where the grapevine takes place in combination with points out
its difference from formal management communication. Structured management
uses verbal messages to communicate through the chain of command, while
grapevine communication jumps from one department to another and all within a
short span of time. The grapevine, as communication, can be compared to the
organizations formal information network.
Formal vs. Informal Channels of Communication
Every organization has a formal· communication system. This formal
system provides information regarding the org~zation to the employees through
different media. The formal network, made up of memos, reports, staff-meeting,
department meetings, conferences, company newsletters, official notices, is highly
documented and as such has very little chance for change. However, nearly all of
the information with the grapevine is undocumented and is thereby open the
change and interpretation as it moves through the network. ."The informal
organization is less permanent and less stable (than the formal organization)
because its leaders and patterns of action change readily". This occurs because of
the dependency of the network on personalities"whereas the formal network is set
up trough structured policies nondependent on individuals.
Keith Davis did a classic study of the grapevine 111 1953. This was
followed by an extension of research by numerous renowned scholars. Keith
Davis stated "the grapevine is a natural and unique part of a company's total
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communication system.. .it is a significailt force within the work group, helping to
build teamwork motivate people, and create corporate identity". He emphasized
that "the grapevine is the informal .passing of· information through the
organization". It does not necessarily follow the formal structure of the
organization and can bypass individuals without restraint. It can be more direct
and faster than the formal channels of information since the information is not
being screened or controlled. It often travels faster than formal channels.
Interestingly, it has been found that the grapevine is equally active both in
management and among the workers. The grapevine exists in organization with
amazing speed. The grapevine is very useful in supplementing formal channels. It
provides people with an outlet for their imaginations and apprehensions as well. It
also helps satisfy a natural desire to know w?at is really going on and gives
employees a sense of belonging. As an early warning system, gossip allows
people to think through in advance what they wiII do if the rumors become the
awful truth. Subordinates may get an idea of what the boss is wrestling with and
may have some suggestions which may help the situation.
The grapevine is flexible and personal and can spread information faster
than the formal communication channels. The grapevine is also capable of
penetrating even the tightest security because it cuts across organizational lines
and deals directly with people in the know.. Bosses who choose not to pay
attention to the grapevine have 50% less credible information than those who do.
Khandwalla (1977) states that it exists because of excessive structuring of formal
work flows and the excessive channeling of information flows. It is fed by
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personal apprehension, wish fulfillment, retaliat.ion, and gosSIp. (Koenig,
1985).Surprisingly, most researchers have found that most grapevine information
is either true or has within it a kernel oftruth.
Reasons for Grapevine Communications
Grapevine exists in all organizations. in varying degrees. Allport &
Postman (1947) ,describe two conditions as controlling activeness of the
grapevine, importance of the subject to the speaker and listener, and the
ambiguousness of the facts. He relates the two with the following formula:
R=IA
Where:
R is the intensity of the rumor
I is the importance of the rumor to the persons communicating, and
A is the ambiguity of the facts associated with the rumor.
This formula, according to them, means that the amount of rumor in
circulation will vary with the importance of the subject to the individuals
concerned times the ambiguity of the evidence pertaining to the topic at issue. The
relation between importance and ambiguity is not additive but multiplicative, for
if either importance or ambiguity is zero, there is no rumor. This formula is
supported by Simmons (1985) who stated it slightly differently. He states "rumors
originate, grow, and spread along the grapevine in direct proportion to their
importance to workers ~d the lack ofnews on a subject from official channels.
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How Accurate is tlic:Grapevine?
Allport and Postman's research indicated that "most rumors start as a
report of an actual episode - that is to say, with someone's perceptual experience
of an event which he deems of sufficient interest and importance to communicate
to others. Once this central theme, the actual episode has been accepted there is a
tendency to distort subsequent news or events in order to make them consistent
with the central theme. However, Davis (1969) reports from his research "that in
nonnal business situations between 75 percent and 95 percent of grapevine
infonnation is correct. In general people tend to think the grapevine is less
accurate than it is because its errors tend to be more dramatic and consequently
are more impressed on one's memory than its day-to-day routine accuracy.
In a nonnal work situation, upwards of 80% ofthe infonnation that comes
over the grapevine is accurate (Arnold, 1983). While the day-to-day accuracy may
be good, people believe the grapevine is less' accurate because the times it is
wrong are more dramatic. A communication may be 90% correct in details but
that last 10% is often the most important part of the message. Messages from the
grapevine are often lacking in all the details so that the message is subject to
misinterpretation; while the grapevine generally carries the truth it seldom carries
the whole truth. An interesting note about the infonnal communications network
is that an estimated 80% of grapevine information is oriented toward the
individual while 20% concerns the company. (Nofel,1985).
Allport and Postman discuss in their hook, the changes that occur as a
rumor passes along the grapevine. The central theme may be resistant to change,
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however crucial details necessary for understanding the true situation keep being
deleted. (They call the process "leveling") At the same time the most dramatic
details keep being exaggerated each time the rumor is repeated. (This they refer to
as "sharpening.") So as the rumor moves along it begins to appear as some sort of
shrinking missile as it keeps getting shorter and more pointed in flight. This may
sound very simple, however we should remember that "the grapevine is fast-
paced and generally moves, free oforganizational restraints, by word ofmouth."
Barriers to Effective Communication
The communication process as identified by Belch and Belch (1998) is
often very complex. Success depends on such factors as the nature of the
message, the audience's interpretation of it and the environment in which it is
received. Various characteristics of the sender, receiver and communication
situation can create barriers to effective communication. By being aware of
potential barriers, the manager can avoid them or recognize situations in which
one of the parties may understand a message. (Wright and Noe, 1995 p.500)
Barriers to effective communication and for that ma~er information flow
include lack of communication skills, selective perceptions, poor listening habits,
emotional state of both the sender and receiver, differing frames of reference,
semantic barriers, sour?e credibility, faulty communication equipments and many
others.
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Lack of Communication Skills
According to Wright and Noe (1995), the effectiveness of an effort to
communicate is limited fIrst by the sender's communicative skills. The sender
needs to understand the message clearly and adequately. Like the sender, the
receiver of the message needs certain abilities to communicate properly. The
receiver must have adequate skills in reading, listening or whatever activity is
necessary to receive the message. The lack of such abilities will be a barrier to
communication. (pp.501-502)
Selective Perceptions
This occurs when people block out new information, especially when it
conflicts with what they believe. Consequently, when people receive information,
they are likely to hear only those parts that are in accordance with their beliefs.
According to Donnelly et al (1987), any information that is incompatible with
preconceived ideas may either not be processed or would be distorted to give
credence to their preconceptions. For example, a notice may be sent to cll
operating departments that cost must be reduced if the organization is to earn
profIt. Such a communication may not achieve its desired effect, because it
conflicts with the reality of the receivers. Operating employees m~y ignore or be
amused by the notice ip. light of the large salaries, travel allowances, and expense
accOlmts of some superiors. Whether these expenditures are justifIed is irrelevant;
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what is important is that such preconceptions. result in breakdowns In
communication.
Also, as indicated by Donnelly et al (1987), sel~ctive perception results in
Stereotyping. When an individual has preconceived ideas about other people, and
refuses to discriminate between individual behaviors, that person is a applying
selective perception to his relationships with other people. Stereotyping is ban-ier
to communication because those who stereotype others use selective perception in
their communication and tend to hear only those things that confinn their
stereotyped images. For instance, some men stereotype successful females, some
women stereotype aggressive men and some superiors stereotype union stewards
Filtering
Filtering is a common occunence 10 upward communication in
organizations. It amounts to "manipulating" infonnation so that the infonnation is
perceived as positive by the receiver. Subordinates "cover up" unfavorable
infonnation in messages to their superiors. The reason for such filtering should be
clear. Upward communication carries control infonnation to management.
Management makes merit evaluations, grants salary increases and promotes
individuals based on what it receives by way of the upward channel. The
temptation to filter is therefore likely to be strong at every level in the
organization. The shape of the organization detennines the extent to which
infonnation can be filtered. An organizational design with mmlY levels of
management (a "tall" organization) will experience more infonnation filtration
than will one with fewer levels (a "flat" organization). One reason that can be
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given to this is the more levels through which upward communication must flow;
the greater is the opportunity for each successive layer of management to take out
what it does not want the next level to know. Thus an advantage of the flat
organizational design is that they minimize the problem of filtration (Donnelly et
aI, 1987).
Poor Listening
Listening is supposed to make up of about fifty percent of the time spent
together by a superior and a subordinate. Unfortunately, it does not happen that
way, since one or both persons are unable to listen (Hatfield and Huseman, 1982).
Bouachie Mensah (2000) gives a very vivid example of this situation where an
employee goes to tell the manager a problem, he or she may be facing. And
before the person even starts his or her story, the manger begins to give a citation
of his or her 0\\'11 current problem. Failing to listen may result from a host of
personal habits. Donnelly et all (1987) opines that "we speak at rates of 100 to
200 words a minute, read at two or three times our speaking rate, and think
several times faster than we read. As a result, a listener can move through a
discussion much faster than a speaker can.
Because of the speed involved, we typically develop poor listening habits.
Bad listening habits are of particular interest in work settings. For instance, if
either a manager or a subordinate fails to listen to the other, the objectives of the
discussion, feedback session, or job instruction will not be accomplished.
39
Semantic Barriers
A major difficulty with communication is the ,form of words. The same
words may mean different things to different people. The selection and use of
wrong or strange words or technical jargons and terms often impede effective
communication.
According to Cullum (1994), the term 'jargon' refers to terms that have a
precise meaning among specialists but are unfamiliar to non-specialists. Such
barriers are increasingly likely, as specialized workers become a greater part of
the work force in an information economy. There is therefore the possibility for a
communicator to speak the same language as the receiver but still not transmit
understanding. Because different groups use words differently, communication
often can be impeded. This is especially true with abstract or technical terms and
praises. For instance a "cost-benefit study" would have meaning to persons
involved in the administration of the organizations accounts but probably would
mean very little to the other staff; in fact it might even carry a negative meaning
to them. Such concepts as trusts, profits and treasury bills may have concrete
meaning to bank executives but little or no meaning to bank tellers. Because
words mean different things to different people; it is possible for a communicator
to speak the same language but still not transmit understanding. (Donnelly et aI,
1987, p,431).
Occupational, professional, and social groups often develop words and
phrases that have meaning only to group members. Such special language can
serve many useful purposes. It can provide group members with feelings of
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belonging, cohesiveness, and self-esteem. It can also facilitate effective
communication within the group. The use of in-group language can, however,
result in severe semantic problems and communication breakdowns when
outsiders or other groups are involved. Technical and staff groups often use such
language in an organization, not for the purpose of transmitting information and
understanding butrather in order to communicate a" mystique" about the group
or its function.
Emotional State
A person's ability to encode a message can become impaired when the
person is feeling strong emotions. For instance, when you are angry, it is harder to
consider the other person's viewpoint and to choose words carefully. In the same
vain, the receiver will have difficulty decoding a message when his or her
emotions are strong. For instance a receiver who is angry might pay attention but
misinterpret a message in light ofhis or her anger.
Communication Overload
One of the vital tasks performed by the manager is decision making. One
of the necessary ingredients for decision is information. The last decade has been
described as the information era, or the age 'of information. Because of the
advances in communication technology, difficulties may arise, not from excessive
information. Managers often are deluged by information and data. As a result,
they cannot absorb or adequately respond to all of the messages directed to them.
According to O'Reilly (1980), "they screen out the majority of messages, which
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in effect means that these messages are· never decided, thus the area of
organizational communication is one which is not always better".
Differing Frames of Reference
Different interpretations can be given to the same communication by
individuals, depending on their previous experience. Wright and Noe (1995) see it
as combination of experiences and expectations giving rise to a particular mind-
set. This results in variations between the communication process, which
effectively lead to communication breakdown. For instance, information overload
can interfere with attention. As a result, the person to whom a message is directed
might never receive it. (pp. 502-503). The result is variations between the
encoding and decoding processes. When the processes are alike, communication
is most effective. When they are different, communication tends to break down.
To the extent that individuals have distinctly different forms of reference,
effective communication among those individuals will be difficult to achieve
(Huseman & Hatfield, 1982 p. 349-3.58)
One result of different frames of reference is that communications become
distorted. In an organization, the jobs that people perform will create barriers and
distortions in communication. Different levels in the organization also will have
different frames of reference. First line managers have frames of reference that
differ in many respects from those of middle level managers because they are in
different positions in the organizations structure. As a result, the need, values,
attitudes, and expectations of these two groups will differ and this often will
produce unintentional distortions of the communication betwecn them. Neither
42
group is wrong or right. In any situation, individual will choose that part of their
own past experiences that relates to their current experiences and is helpful in
forming conclusions and judgments. Unfortunately, such incongruities III
encoding and decoding result in barriers to effective communication.
Source Credibility
This concerns trust, confidence and faith that the receiver attributes to the
words and actions of the sender. The degree of credibility that the receiver
attaches to the communicator directly influences how the receiver considers and
reacts to the words, ideas and actions of the commtmicator. Thus sending
conflicting signals erodes the sender's credibility.
Mc. Quail (1972) believes that the sender is seen to lack credibility when
the receiver doubts that person has enough knowledge about the subject matter to
discuss it accurately. Thus, how subordinates view a communication from their
manager is affected by their evaluations of the manager. The degree of credibility
tlley attach to the communication is heavily influenced by their previous
experiences with tlle manager. A group of organizational staff who view their
administrator as less than honest, manipulative, and not to be trusted are apt to
assign non-existent motives to any communication from the administrator. In the
same vein, union leaders who view managers (superiors) as exploiters, and
superiors who view union leaders as inherent enemies are likely to engage in little
real communication..
The barriers to communication discussed here, though common, are by no
means the only ones that exist. Examining these barriers indicates that they are
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either within individuals or within organizations. As indicated by Muchinsky
(1977) this point is important because "attempts to improve communications must
focus on changing people and/or changing the organization structure".
Improving Communication In Administration of Tertiary Institutions
Managers can and should improve communication in organizations,
including universities and other tertiary institutions. This can be achieved by
fostering a climate that encourages communication. Various strategies may be
adopted in doing this. Some of the techniques include regulating information
flow, utilizing feedback, clarity of expressions, encouraging active listening,
managing emotions [supportive communication] and many others.
Regulating Information Flow
There is the need to regulate the flow of communications, which would
ensure an optimum flow of information to administrators, there by eliminating the
barrier of communication overload. This could be achieved by implementing the
principle of "Management by Exception" [MBE] whereby only significant
deviations from policies and procedure should be brought to the attention of
Managers.
Utilizing Feedback
The manager [administrators] should utilize the element of feedback in the
communication process. Feedback provides a channel for receiver response,
which enables the communicator to ascertain whether the massa'le has been
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received and has yielded the expected response. The manager should interpret his
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feedback with care, confirming that the receivers understood the message and the
manager understood the feedback.
Clarity of Expressions
To ensure effective communication, Bouachie Mensah [2000] contends
that manager would need to simplifY the language used by focusing on
transmitting understanding as well as information. Instances in which people,
particularly professionals try to use their in-group language in communicating
with individuals outside their group should be avoided.
Encouraging Active Listening
Active listening according to Fiske [1994] means accepting responsibility
for the accurate understanding of a massage by helping the sender clarifY its
meaning. To do this deliberate effort should be made to listen carefully: make
eye contact and do not let your mind wander. Whenever a message seems
ambiguous, ask for clarification. Finally, test the perceived meaning by
'reflecting' it back, which is, paraphrasing what you think the sender said. If
done sparingly, reflection is an effective tool.
Managing Emotions
One of the most important tools used in improving communication is to
manage emotions. The sender should avoid encoding and transmitting messages
when he or she is angry and upset. The sender can also manage ..::motions by
using supportive communication. According to Whetted and Cameron [1984],
suppurtive communication is a style of communication that delivers a massage
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accurately while supporting and enhancing the r~lationship between the parties to
the communication.
The Internet
The Internet's appearance in higher education was used as a tool for
researchers to communicate and share project data. Today the education domain is
still one of the largest contributors to the Internet. However, the Internet is
unorganized and Web sites appear, disappear, move or mutate on daily basis.
While the Internet is difficult to search, it is even more difficult to search it well.
Moreover, the information found on the Internet has both the useful and the
useless co-existing (New Mexico State University Library, 2002).
Despite these drawbacks, the Internet has a few advantages: it is relatively
fast, it is accessible 24 hours a day, seven days a week and you can use it from
your own computer. More and more students as well as lecturers are doing their
research exclusively on the Internet. While this phenomenon is a sign of the
times, it is important for researchers to recognize that not everything is available
on the Internet.
Importance of the Internet
The Internet can be conceived as a rich, multi-layered, complex, ever-
changing textual environment. The Internet provides several opportunities for the
academia. It is a mechanism for information dissemination and a medium for
collaborative interaction between individuals and their computers without regard
for geographic limitation of space (Leiner et ,aI., 2000; Singh, 2002). Content
created on the Internet ranges from simple e-mail messages to sophisticated
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'documents' (sites) incorporating sounds, images and words.(Evans, 1996) The
Internet is a 'live', constantly 'moving', theoretically borderless, potentially infinite
space for the production and circulation of information. The Internet is arguably
one of the most significant technological developments of the late 20th century.
While printed materials have a certain fixity and finitude, texts published via the
Internet have a much more fluid character. With texts no longer housed between
library or bookshop walls, it becomes impossible to 'pin dO\vn' all or even most of
the available materials in given subject areas for archival and classification
purposes. The Internet might thus be described as a 'sea of information', subject to
the ebb and flow of various forces (political, corporate, institutional, etc.),
creating an ever-shifting shoreline.
Services on the Internet
First, and perhaps of greatest importance for many subscribers to online
services, is e-mail. Computer connectivity between nations has allowed a new
form of correspondence to evolve and this, though seldom noticed, has changed
people's daily lives the world over. Academics now send more words to others,
more often, than ever before. While the bureaucratization of the university has
contributed to an increase in 'busy work' of all kinds (including memoranda and
correspondence), e-mail seems to have exacerbated the effects of this trend. E-
mail has conferred some wonderful advantages. It is now possible to
communicate easily anq rapidly with people thousands of miles away. E-mail has
become a seemingly indispensable part of people's lives, and correspondence by
post ~eems tedious and slow by comparison.' Yet, perhaps because e-mail, in
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removmg preVIOUS barriers of geography and distance, reduces some of the
perceived burdens of the old paper and post systems, it is used almost incessantly!
The flood of words generated bye-mail is matched by a similar drowning in
discourse through the myriad discussion groups and 'chat rooms' of all kinds now
available on the Internet. Some of these are outgrowths from, or affiliated with,
formal publications or professional societies. In such cases participants usually
take considerable care in their submissions to discussions. As with e-mail,
however, the ease with which contributions to, a discussion group can be made
sometimes encourages those who might otherwise not be bothered to get involved
- even if this is in a less than productive manner. Finally, the Internet is fast
becoming a major site for commercial activity, and many corporate organizations
now advertise their goods and services - and sometimes sell them, either as one
wing of a larger operation or as. their sole form of business activity - in
cyberspace.
Meaning of Public Relations
It is an undeniable fact that no organisation can insulate itself from its
publics. Every organisation is dependent on the people outside it as well as its
own employees. There is indeed a need for an enormous flow of information from
one part of the organisation to another as well as the development of a good
external communication system.
Hargreaves (1977), is of the opinion that there is a direct relationship
between the effectiveness of communication and efficiency of any organization.
To him, any appreciable misunderstanding about what someone is required to
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mow or do will produce an appreciable degree of inefficiency in and
organization. He is also of the opinion that good communication links with the
publics ofany organization can be said to have attained· its objectives only when it
has also satisfied the needs of all those who have a stake in the organization (i.e.
its publics). In a typical tertiary educational institution such as the university, one
major section, which facilitates or plays a key role in the dissemination of
information through effective communication channels especially among the
internal publics of the institutions, is the Public Relations Unit. The term "Public
Relations" as a form or communication has be~n difficult to trace though public
relations practitioners and educators have managed to locate where the modern
form ofthe organized persuasive communication fits in history.
In spite of the difficulty, many authors have defined the concept of public
relations in many ways.
Modoux (1989) sees public relations as representing a management
function that has a three-fold task;
1. evaluating and interpreting the opinions, attitudes and aspirations of the
various publics - internal and external - affected directly or indirectly by
the activities of the organization.
2. presenting proposals to the governing bodies of the organization on policy
and a line of conduct that make it possible to reconcile the particular
interests of the organization with those of the publics concerned.
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3. planning and carrying out short, medimn ~d long ternl plans to create
better knowledge and understanding, e~pecially through dialogue, of the
organization as well as its problems.
The British Institute of Public Relations (lPR) sees it as the deliberate,
planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual tmderstandillg
between an orgaJ).ization and its publics. On its part, the International Public
Relations Association (lPRA) sees public relations practice as a:
Management function of a continuing and planned
character through which public and private
organizations and institutions se~k to win and retain
the understanding, sympathy and support of those
with whom they are or may be concerned.
Importance of Public Relations
The importance of public relations is derived from its omni-presence in
every sphere of an organization's life. It is present in government be it on the
international, national, regional or local/district level in small, medium-sized,
large and trans-national business and industries social welfare, educational
institutions, hospitals, charitable organisations and international concerns. It is the
area in the organisation, which gives a human face and thought to its otherwise
inhuman existence, and seeks to harmonize the different interests of the different
publics to whom the organisation relates.
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A Short History of the Public Relations l?cpartment of the
University of Cape Coast
Basically, the objectives of an educati(;mal public relations programme,
particularly in the university, is highly identical with the general purpose of any
public relations company; to keep the public constantly informed, to build a solid
foundation for the formulation of a favourable public opinion and to create active
consent. Obviously the difference in public relations practice here is not one of
kind but of degree. Thus educational public relations seek to influence mostly
publics who are relevant to its particular field. Here the public relation officer is
concerned with creating a favourable climate of opinion among all its publics
including the alumni - the students' body, the local community and the world
community.
In fact, the public relations outfit has evidently become invaluable in all
tertiary institutions with the passing of each day because public goodwill and
funds are at stake. This is especially so with the nation's universities which have
been caught in recwTing crises of student confrontation with both government and
the university administration and protests against image distortion by the media
for the past decade. TIns underscores the need for the public relations outfit in the
university, and hence makes it indispensable as an administrative tool.
The Public Relations Section forms an integral part of the central
administration of University of Cape Coast, which was established as far back as
1965. (Gazette Extraordinary, 1978). It was originally designated as an
infonnation section. However in 1969, the name was changed to the public
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relations section to confonn to the designation being ~lsed by most universities.
In 1970, the focus was changed to the promotion of community relations,
that is to say, the office, is to promote and foster good community relations within
the university and with the public outside the institution - usually in the town in
which the institution is, the immediate environment, the country as a whole and
on the international scene.
It is also the duty of the office to create a wholesome atmosphere by the
efficient use of organizational communication teclmiques in which both academic
and non-academic functions of the university could be fmitfully carried out.
In carrying out this function, an efficient administrative communication
has been developed, hence the office provides infonnation in the broadest sense
of the word, about the university, its publics and programmes to all its
constituents within the university and its community. The office has direct
responsibility to the Vice - Chancellor, particularly for all "professional" matters
and at the same time directly responsible to and close laison with the registrar in
respect of administrative matters and functions which affect the organization's
governance and administration of the university. It is very expedient to stre~s
also, that the unit acts as a source of infonnation and contact between sections of
the university and between the university and its community.
Personnel '
The Public Rel!1tions Section is presently headed by a Senior Assistant
Registrar (PRO). He is supported by the following staff members:
2 Assistant Registrars (Publications & Protocol)
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1 Senior Administrative Assistant
1 Administrative Assistant
2 1L)1pists
1 Messenger
1 Receptionist
A significant aspect of the university administrative system which
determines to a considerable extent, the mode of the public relations section is the
committee system. Thus, personnel of the public relations section serve on most
of the statutory boards and committees of the university as secretaries.
The dissemination of information to both internal and external publics of
the university by the public relation unit is also evidenced in the various
publications of the publication unit since they feed the publication unit with most
if not all of the information published in the major official publications such as
the university Bulletin, Gazette, Calendar, Annual Reports, Annual Statistics,
Congregation Brochures / Speeches and many more.
It is important to state that the Public Relations Section communicates
with the university publics by letters, hand-out, bills, circulars, notices and also
through the mass media. Memoranda, reports, and minutes are also used.
53
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter discusses the methodology adopted in carrying out the data
collection. It describes the target population and the selected sample. The areas
covered in this section of the study includes the research design, population, the
sample and sampling techniques, the research instrument, pilot testing, data
collection procedure and data organization and analysis procedure.
Research Design
The descriptive survey design was adopted and used. The descriptive
sanlple survey involves the collection of data in order to test hypothesis or to
answer questions concerning the current status of the subject. The design mainly
deals with assessing the communication system as it is in the University of Cape
Coast. The assessment of the situation was made through the administering of
questionnaires to the senior members (both lecturers and administrators),
administrative staff, and students and the holding of interview with the Assistant
Registrars for public relations and publications. The descriptive sample survey
helped the researcher to obtain as much information as possible from a large
sanlple of individuals, the result of which could be used to generalize for the
entire population. It is usually recommended for the purposes of generalizing
from a sample to a population so as to make inference about some characteristics,
or behaviour of the population. According to Creswell (2003);ra survey research
involves researchers asking usually a large group of people questions about a
particular topic or issue. Information is collected from a group of people in order
54
to describe some aspects of the population of which that group is a part. The main
way in which the infonnation is collected is through asking questions; the answers
to these questions by the members of the group constitute the data of the study.
Population
The population for the study included all Senior Members (non-teaching),
Senior Members ~teaching), Administrative Staff and Student Leaders. The
Administrative staff was further broken down into senior staff and junior staff III
all, a total of 2,352 respondents were included in the population for this study.
Ii This consists ofthe following:
I Category of Respondents Number of RespondentsI,
Student leaders 35
Junior Staff 1,510
Senior Staff 470
Senior Members (teaching) 294
Senior Members (non teaching) 43
Total 2,352
Source: University of Cape Coast Basic Statistics (2003)
The student leaders included the executive members of the Students
Representative CoUncil (SRC), Graduate Students Association of Ghana
(GRASAG), and National Union of Ghana Students (NUGS), in the University of
Cape Coast. Staff with position such as typists, clerks and cashiers made up the
category ofjunior staff for the study.
Respondents inCluded in the senior staff category were those with
positions such as Administrative Assistants (A.A), Senior Administrative
Assistants (S.A.A), Principal Administrative· Assistants (p.A.A) and Chief
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Administrativc Assistants (C.A.A) from all thc facullics. dcpartmcnts. units and
other scctions of the Univcrsity. 'I1le main composition of the senior mcmbers
(teaching) includes all lecturers with the rank of Assistant Lecturer upwards.
TIms. this group of respondents \\'as made up Assistnnt lecturers, Lecturers,
Senior Lecturers. Associate Professors and Professors,
TIle last group of respondents was the Senior Members (non-teaching),
TIlesc included the senior administrative personnel of the status of Assistant
Registrar. Senior Assistant Registrar, Deputy Registrar and the registrar at the
central administration. Librarians and Medical Doctors of the University of Cape
Coast.
Sample and Sampling Techniques
The sample for the study included Student Leaders, Administrative Staff.
and Senior Members (teaching) and Senior lvfembers (non-teaching) of thc
University of Cape Coast. A total sample of 378 was used for the study, The
breakdo\\TI of the respondents included in the study was as follows:
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Respondents
Student Leaders
Junior Staff
Senior Staff
Senior Members (Teaching)
Senior Members (Non-Teaching)
Total
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Numberof
35
151
65
107
20
378
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The entire 35 student leaders mentioned in the population was used to
elicit information for the study. The purposive sampling method was used to
select this group of respondents. The purposive sampl~ is a non-random sample
and it is used because those selected would have the necessary information.
",According to Koul(1997),purposive sampling is usually adopted because there is
good evidence that it is a representative of the total population. Since the student
leaders represent the interest of the entire student body, and serve as the link
between the central administration and the students, the researcher believes that
they would be representative enough for the students.
In selecting the junior staff, the researcher was guided by the suggestion
made by Nwana't992) which mentioned that if the population is a few hundreds,
a 40% or more sample size will do; if several hundreds a 20% sample size will do;
if a few thousands a 10% sample size will do; and if several thousands 5% or less
sample size will do.
Out of a total of 1,510 junior staff, 151 from all the faculties, departments,
schools and units was used to gather information for the study. This represents
10% of the junior staff included in the population. The simple random sampling
technique was adopted and used to select the junior staff. The simple random·
sample is one in which each and every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. The lottery technique was applied here. Thils, the names
of the junior staff wer~ written on pieces of paper, put in a bowl, thorougWy
mixed and one picked at a time. The rest of the pieces of papers in the bowl were
then r.:llxed again before the next one was picked. This process was repeated until
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the 151 junior staff was obtained.
The purposive sampling technique was used to select the seruor
administrative staff in the various faculties, departments, and units and other
sections of the university. All the 65 senior administrative staff as stated in the
iasic Statistics (2003) of the University ofCape Coast were included in the study.
In addition, lecturers with the rank of Senior Lecturer or above were
purposively selected and included in the study. In all, 107 respondents on the
named rank were used for the study. Those who fell into this category of
respondents usually occupy positions such as deans of faculties, heads of
departments and heads of various academic units. Thus, the researcher believes
that since they occupy leadership positions in the university, they would have a lot
of information, which would help the researcher to achieve his objectives in this
study.
Also, the purposive sampling technique· was used to select all the Senior
Members (Non - teaching). Thos~ included in this category were the. senior
administrative officers in the university who are directly involved in
communication among the institution's internal publics. These include the faculty
officers, unit co-ordinators and unit heads. A total of 20 of such respondents were
involved in this study.
The researcher believes that the sample size of 378 was large enough to
serve as an adequate representation about which he wishes to generalize. Also, it
must be small enough to be selected economically in terms of sample accessibility
and expense in time and money as well as complexity ofdata.
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Instruments for Data Collection
Two mam instruments were prepared and used to gather data and
information for the study. These were structured questionnaire and interview.
The respondents had to choose from answers which had been provided and which
were applicable to them. The questionnaire method was adopted since the study
was carried in an educational institution where all the respondents are literate.
One type of questionnaire was prepared and administered to the respondents.
Each set of the questionnaire had six main sections, treating the background ofthe
respondents, views on communication, views on formal and informal channels of
communication, views on the media of communication, impediments to
information flow and the strategies to help minimize the impediments.
Each set of questionnaire had 45 items for all the respondents. The
questionnaire involved open-ended and close -ended questions. These offered the
respondents the opportunity to express their opinions on the communication flow
in the university. A five (5) point Likert Scale was used to structure the
questionnaire. A continuous scale from 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree' was
used. The responses were valued as follows: 5='strongly agree', 4='agree',
3='uncertain', 2= 'disagree' and 1='strongly disagree'. Also, other sections of the
questionnaire had a four (4) point scale ranging from 4= 'very often', 3= 'often',
2= 'seldom', 1= 'never'. The open-ended questions had space(s) for the
respondents to provide their own answers.
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Some senior ~embers, such as the assistant registrars in charge of public
relations and publication, were interviewed using an interview guide, to find out
about the impediments to information flow among the internal publics of the
University of Cape Coast.
Pre -testing oflnstruments
In order to check for the inconsistency of responses given in the items in
the questionnaire it became imperative to pilot test them. In view of this, a pre -
test of the research instrument was carried out at the University of Education -
Winneba which has similar characteristics as the University of Cape Coast. Forty
(40) Copies of the questionnaire were given to junior staff, senior staff, senior
members (both teaching and non-teaching) and student leaders for completion and
return. An alpha coefficient of 0.76 was obtained. This indicated that the
questionnaire was internally consistent and could thus be used for the study. The
researcher interacted with the staff, to ascertain their views on and reactions to the
questionnaire with regard to any incomprehension, incoherence or ambiguity with
tile drafting of the questionnaire. The researcher also believed that this would
help him to ensure that the sample, data collection procedure among others were
appropriate and would also be able to derive the best results when the actual study
was considered.
Data Collection Procedure
After the research instruments were prepared, an introductory Jetter was
obtained from the researcher's department. The requisite number ofcopies of both
60
the questionnaire and introductory letters were mad. In all, 378 copies of the
questionnaire were issued to respondents.
The researcher then went to the various facuIties~ schools, departments,
halls, and the registry one after the other to present the introductory letter to
them. For the faculties, the faculty officer devoted one of his subordinates to
conduct the researcher round the various departments; units and offices to enable
him administer the questionnaire. The hall administrators also devoted one of
their staff to conduct the researcher round for the same purpose. The researcher
established good working relationship with the respondents and this made them
feel at home in responding to the questions. In most cases the researcher left the
questionnaires with the respondents and went for them the next day. A total of
362 questionnaires were returned, indicating a return rate of95.8%.
Data Organization and Analysis Procedure
To arrive at an effective statistical presentation and for effective computer
analysis, the raw data gathered was organized bearing in mind the research
questions for which the instruments were designed. The questionnaire was serially
numbered to facilitate easy identification. This precaution was taken to ensure
quick detection of any source of error when they occurred in the tabulation of the
data. The responses to the various items in the questionnaire were then coded,
tabulated and statistically analysed. Since the study adopts mainly a descriptive
survey approach, the statistical analysis used consisted mairly of the
determination of frequencies and percentages.
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CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The main purpose for conducting this research was to identify the barriers
to communication flow in higher educational institutions, specifically, the
University of Cape Coast. Statistical Package for Service Solution (SPSS) was
used to analyze data in order to find answers to the research questions. The views
of the five categories of respondents were also analyzed in particular cases to
compare their responses.
Tables were drawn for quick reference. The responses were ranked with
the highest marks being 5 and 4. Implications of the findings were then discussed.
More attention was paid to certain implications of the findings in the discussions
and the ideas behind certain responses were also highlighted.
This chapter comprises two main parts. The first part deals with the
demographic characteristics of the respondents whiles the second part deals with
the analysis of the main results of the study using the computed frequencies and
percentages. In all, five main categories of respondents were involved in the
study, all of which form part of the university's internal publics. These are Senior
Members, Administrative Staff, and Student Leaders. The senior members were
further divided into teaching and non-teaching members and the administrative
staffput into two categories- senior staff and junior staff.
62
Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
The demographic characteristics of the respondents are depicted in Tables
1-3.They show the demographic distribution in rclationto sex, highest educational
qualification and status of the respondents in the university.
Gender of the Respondents
The respondents were requested to indicate their gender. This was to
enable the researcher to know the distribution pattern of the respondents in
relation to their sexes. Their response is as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Distribution of Respondents by Gender
Sex Frequency Percentage (%)
Male
Female
Total
263
99
362
72.7
27.3
100
The majority (72.7%) of the respondents who participated in the study
were males and 27.3% females as shown in Table 1. This distribution pattern of
the respondents is not strange as it follows the trend of gender distribution in most
established institutions and recognized bodies in Ghana. According to the
Electoral Commission of Ghana, out of the two hundred and thirty (230) elected
parliamentarians in the recently held December 2004 elections, only twenty (20)
were women. This figure represents less than 10% of the total legislative body.
63
Another case in point is the University of Cape Coast where none of the
five top executives of the university (the Vice- Chancellor, Pro-Vice Chancellor,
Registrar, Finance Officer and Internal Auditor) is a woman.
Highest Educational Qualification of Respondents
The respondents were asked to indicate their highest educational
qualification to enable the researcher identify their respective levels in the
institution and the roles they play to ensure effective communication in the
university. Their reaction to this question is represented in Table 2.
Table 2
Distribution of Respondents by Highest Educational Qualification
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.Qualification
PhD
Msc, Med, MA, MPHIL,MBA,
RED, BA, RSC, RCOM
HND
Diploma
G.C.E A'LEVEL,SSCE,
GCEO'LEVEL & BELOW
TOTAL
Frequency
20
104
46
24
20
147
362
Percentage (%)
5.5
28.7
13.0
6.6
5.5
40.6
100
As Table 2 reveals, the highest number of respondents (40.6%) fell within
the educational qualification category of GCE A' Level and below. They
constitute the lowest level of emplyees in the university. This can be attributed to
the fact that the majority of employees of the university are of the lower level
64
management r:ank such as messengers, cleaners and clerks. Next are the
respondents with the educational qualificatiol,1 of master's degree and above
(34.2%) who form the top management group in the university. They are also the
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highest decision making body in the institution. They include Registrar, Deputy
Registrars, Assistant Registrars, lecturers and other senior members. Those with
first degree, higher national diploma and diploma constituted the least of
respondents (25.1%) in terms of educational status. They also form the middle
management group.
Status of Respondents in tbe University
Table 3
the university. Their responses are shown in Table 3.
The respondents were asked to indicate their status in terms ofposition in
Status of the Respondents in the University
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Percentage (%)
102
Frequency
Senior Members (Teaching)-S.M.T
Position
Senior Members (Non-Teaching) 20 5.5
S.M.N-T
Senior Staff (S.S.) 63 17.4
Junior Staff (J.S.) 143 37.5
Student Leaders (S.L.) 34 9.4
Total 362 1GO.O
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Table 3 clearly shows that greater numbers (37.5%) of the respondents
were junior staff of the university of Cape Coast. This, could be that majority of
the staff fell within this category because each unit, department, hall and faculty
needs such caliber of people to work in capacities such as messengers, cleaners,
typists, and secretaries. The least represented group as shown in Table 3 was
those who fell within the Senior Member (non-teaching) category with 5.5%. The
others such as the Senior Members (teaching), Senior Staff and Student leaders
follow in that order.
Views on Communication in the University of Cape Coast
Research Question 1: What is the general perception of the vanous
categories of internal publics of the University of Cape Coast on communication
in the institution? The researcher's main reason for this research question was to
ascertain the views of the respondents on the general communication network of
the university and how well they fulfill the purpose of di~seminatinginformation
among its internal publics. Question items 4 - 9 in the questionnaire were used to
answer this research question.
Respondents were asked to indicate whether communication was very
vital to the effective running of the university. Their responses were as depicted in
Table 4.
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Table 4
I Importance of Communication
i
- Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
Category
% F % F % F %F
S.M.T 1 1.0 101 99.0 102 100
S.M.N-T 20 100 20 100
S.S. 63 100 63 100
J.S. 2 1.4 8 5.6 133 93.0 143 100
S.L. 34 100 34 100
In reaction to the question of the importance of communication to the
effective running of the university, an average majority of 98.4 % of the
respondents agreed that communication is very vital to the effective and efficient
running of the university. In most organizations, educational institutions not an
exception, communication happens to be the fulcrum around which the
organization revolves. According to Kaye (2002), good communication helps to
promote closeness between managers and staff and thus improves inter-personal
relations. From the response gathered, it is evident that all the .categories of
respondents do share the view of Kaye. From tne positive response gathered then,
communication has been and continues to be a very effective tool in the
promotion of interpersonal relations among people at different levels of authority
within the University of Cape Coast community.
In an interview with the Assistant Registrar in charge of public relations,
he stressed that "staff of the university at various levels, interact frequently with
each other and this has gone a long way to enhance the attainment of the broad
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university's objectives of teaching, learning and promotion of research activities".
In his view, this has helped to reduce social conflicts such as strikes and
misunderstandings between students and administration and other teaching and
non-teaching staff'.
Commenting on this issue the Assistant Registrar for publications
reiterated the fact that communication is the life blood of every organization. He
was of the view that "the university as a corporate entity has a large internal
public and thus if the university was to improve significantly then communication
should playa major role." Again he stressed that since the university is mainly
run with the tax payer's money, he needs to know what goes on in the institution
and this can only be conveyed to him through an effective communication
system." These views expressed by the university's public relations and
publications officers confirm the findings of the research as indicated in the
Table.
Again, it could be seen from Table 4 that, 93.0% of the 143 junior staff
included in the study agreed with the statement that communication is very vital
to the effective running of the university. This represents a balanced cohesion
between junior and senior staff on this issue.
The above finding is consistent with Lesikar et al (1999) argument that
one's work in business will involve a lot of communication because
communication is a major factor and essential part of the work of a business.
Lesikar is of the view that because of the importance of communication,
businesses must seek to employ people with good communication skills.
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However, he laments that business's need for employees with good
communication skills is all too often not fulfilled. Most employees do not
communicate well. He suggests that the importance ~f communication to the
improvement in productivity of an organization therefore demands that
management of institutions such as universities should work to improve the
communication skills of their employees. (Lesikar et aI, 1999, pp 3).
To determine how smoothly information flows in the University of Cape
Coast, the respondents were asked to indicate whether or not communication flow
is smooth. The view of the respondents is as indicated in Table 5.
Table 5
Communication Flow in the University of Cape Coast
S.M.N-T 8
Category
S.M.T
S.S.
1.S.
S.L.
F
59
35
63
18
Disagree
%
57.9
40
55.6
44.1
52.9
F
9
8
27
Uncertain
%
8.8
12.7
18.8
F
34
12
20
53
16
Agree
%
33.3
60
31.7
37.1
47.1
Total
F %
102 100 ,i
..
20 100 . I,
63 100
143 100
34 100
In response to the question ofwhether communication flow is very smooth
in the University of Cape Coast, more than half of the respondents (50.1 %)
disagreed with the statement. Thus they were of the opinion that communication
flow is not as smooth as expected. Smooth communication involves very clear,
unambiguous and tra.'lsparent communication lines. The students were of the view
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that information flow is sometimes blocked by many factors which sometimes
leads to rift between the university administration and the student body. For
instance an SRC representative who pleaded for anonymity was of the view that
the university authorities keep some vital information from the students. This
normally creates a communication gap between the two parties and sometimes
results in student unrest in the universities.
Commenting on the flow of information within the university, one lecturer
lamented seriously about the delay in delivery of letters and other correspondence
between the twin campuses of the institution (Old site and New site). He was of
the opinion that another letter collection point should be established at the new
site to facilitate the smooth flow of informatiop.. In another development it was
interesting to note that most of the university's internal communication system
such as the intercom in most sections of the departments had either broken down
or is non-existent. At the Faculty ofArts for instance, there is no intercom linkage
between the dean's office and the various departments and offices under the
faculty. This therefore causes a lot of delays in the delivery of work and thus
negatively affects productivity.
In an interview with the Assistant Registrar for publications, he stated that,
communication among the internal publics of the university is not the best. He
stressed that communication is a complex structure. Unfortunately however, "it is
empirically evidenced that there is no absolute, efficient and effective
communication lines between the various categories of the university's internal
70
publics. The Communication network is mainly the top-to-down approach with all
its concomitant dangers".
i- Communication is Not Only Relevant to the Top Level Management orthe
University
To ascertain the relevance of communication, the respondents were asked
to determine whether communication was relevant to only top level management
of the university. The response gathered is as shown in Table 6.
Table 6
Relevance of Communication
Disagree
Category
S.M.T
S.M.N-T
S.S.
J.S.
S.L.
F
2
5
38
15
%
2.0
7.9
26.6
44.1
F
1
6
Uncertain
%
1.6
4.2
Agree Total
F % F %
100 98.0 102 100
20 100 20 100
57 90.5 63 100
99 69.2 143 100
19 55.9 34 100
In response to the question of whether communication is only relevant to
the top management of the university, an average of 82.7% of the respondents
agreed with the statement that communication is not only relevant to the top level
management of the ur,llversity.17.3% of them however disagree~ with the
statement. Communication is said to be a process of transmission of common
understanding through the use of symbols. The term communication is derived
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from the Latin word "communis" which means "common". In other words, unless
a common understanding results from the transmission of symbols (verbal and
nonverbal) there is no communication. (Donnelly et aI, 1987). This view of
Donnelly et al clearly suggest that it is only when there is understanding between
the sender and the receiver of the message that communication can be said to have
taken place. However these interactions do not occur between the top-level
management cf an organization only and the university is no exception. There is
always some level of interaction between superiors and subordinates at the
university's administration, faculties, departments, and units. Thus, effective
communication is an essential component of organizational success whether it is
at the interpersonal, intergroup, intragroup, organizational or external levels.
Perhaps, this explains why over 98.0% of the senior members supported the
statement. Hence, it can be concluded that the communication process cuts across
all the different spectrum of organizational structure. A case in point is where the
Vice- Chancellor of the university gives instructions on the day's work to his
driver who is his subordinate.
Written Communication
This question was asked to find out the views of the respondents on the
use ofwritten communication as a means ofdisseminating information in the
university. Their responses are shown in Table 7.
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Table 7
The use of Written Communication
Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 1 1 101 99.0 102 100
S.M.N-T 20 100 20 100
S.S. 2 3.2 3 4.8 58 92.0 63 100
J.S. 21 14.7 5 3.5 117 81.8 143 100
S.L. 6 17.6 28 82.4 34 100
From Table 7 we find that an average of89.0% of the respondents were of
the opinion that written communication is commonly used in the dissemination of
information in the university. Various forms of written communication are
currently being used in the university of Cape Coast. These include notices,
letters, memoranda, minutes and many more. This coincides with the assertion of
Gibson and Hodgetts (1986) that written communication is word-processed which
includes letters, memoranda, reports, minutes, mail-merged circulars, email
messages, faxed and telephoned documents, queries, bulletins, house journals and
notices. In supporting this view Kaye (2002) says that every official business
undertaken in an office should ideally be recorded in writing to maintain a long-
term record. The uni,:ersity as an institution is operated on the principle of
perpetual existence and thus needs to keep copies of all important documents for
future reference. Hence the use of written communication for disseminating
73
infonnation is in the right direction since it gives room to the authorities to make
reference whenever need be.
Oral Communication
In response to a question on the use of oral communication in infonnal
communication among the internal publics of the university, the views of the
respondents were as indicated in Table 8.
Table 8
The use of Verbal Communication
Category
S.M.T
S.M.N-T
S.S.
I.S.
S.L.
Disagree Uncertain' Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
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39 38.2 19 18.6 44 43.2 102 100 \t
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2 10 1 5.0 17 85 20 100
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5 7.9 10 15.9 48 76.2 63 100 I,
17 11.9 29 20.3 97 67.8 143 100
7 20.6 27 79.4 34 100
The data in Table 8 indicates that majority of the respondents (70.3%)
were of the view that oral communication is very commonly used in infonnal
communication among the internal publics of the university of Cape Coast. Tllis
means that most infonnal communication among the internal publics of the
institution involve the spoken word and may be done either verbally through a
medium or in a face to face interaction between the sender and the receiver of the
message. They may also take the fonn of telephone calls, interviews, speeches,
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staff meetings, public address systems and inter-com. The table also reveals that
97(67.8%) of the 143 junior staff either agreed or strongly agreed with the
statement. This may be attributed to the fact that most of the junior staff have low
level of formal education and thus find it easier to communicate in the local
languages, which is mostly done orally. These findings support the view of
Mitzberg (1975), which emphasized that managers often spend between 50-90%
of their time talking to people. In the University of Cape Coast for instance,
people within the university community discuss various personal matters among
themselves orally. To a very large extent, this helps to build strong interpersonal
relationships among the internal publics and therefore enhances strong human
relation, which is a vital tool for the development of the university community.
The use of Nonverbal Communication
On the issue of whether nonverbal communication is normally used to
reinforce oral communication among the internal publics of the university, a
greater percentage of the respondents (53.3%) agreed to the fact that nonverbal
communication is very commonly used to reinforce oral communication as
indicated in Table 9.
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Table 9
The use of Nonverbal Communication
Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 14 13.7 58 56.9 30.0 29.4 102 100
S.M.N-T 9 45.0 4 20.0 7 35.0 20 100
S.S. 10 15.9 22 34.9 31 49.2 63 100
J.S. 29 20.2 9 6.4 105 73.4 143 100
S.L. I 2.9 6 17.6 27 79.5 34 100
According to Fiske (1994), nonverbal communication is carried on
through presentational codes such as gestures, eye movements, or qualities of
voice. This means that apart from oral communication, which is a common
method of personal and unofficial communication among the internal publics of
the university, they also use gestures, eye movements and quality voice to make
clearer messages communicated orally. Thus, this may go a long way to reduce
the impediments to information flow and enhance inter-personal communication
among the inhabitants of the university community.
It also supports the view of Evans (1994) that nonverbal communication
may take the form of posture of expressions. He goes further to stress that this
medium of communication reinforces oral and simplifies written or spoken word.
However, 56.9% of the senior members (teaching) included in the study were
uncertain (neither agreed nor disagreed) about the statement. In an informal
76
discussion with some of the lecturers it came to light that quite a number of them
do not really pay particular attention to the nonverbal aspect of the information
they put across since their main concentration is no~ally on the information
being carried and not necessarily the kind of gestures that goes with it. One
lecturer stated clearly that he really had no time to consider the nonverbal aspect
of the information communicated since he had so much work to do at any point in
time.
Inform~tion gathered from research question one (1) depicts clearly that
the role of communication in the day-to-day running of the University of Cape
Coast cannot be over emphasized. It actually forms the fulcrum around which the
institution revolves. It is clear from the responSeS received that communication is
not as smooth as expected. Information flow from the top management to the
other levels of management especially the lower level is sometimes blocked,
thereby creating communication gaps which sometimes reflects in all kinds of
delays, misunderstanding and unrest among the internal publics of the institution.
It was also very clear from the findings that the communication process cuts
across all the different spectrum of the organizational structure and it is not only
relevant to the top management of the university. In addition to all these, the
research also revealed that written and oral communication are the most common
form of communication in HIe University of Cape Coast. Though non-verbal
communication is also used, less attention is paid to it.
77
Channels of Communication Commonly used in the University of Cape
Coast
Research Question 2: What kinds of fonnal and infonnal channels of
communication exists within the University of Cape Coast and to what extent
have they been successful in the dissemination of infonnation among the internal
publics of the institution. This research question was asked to identify the various
kinds of fonnal and infonnal channels of communication among the internal
publics of the university and examine how effective they have been in the
dissemination ofinfonnation in the institution. Question items 10-14 were used to
answer this question.
Downward Communication Channel
In reaction to a question on whether downward communication is used in
the dissemination of infonnation within the university's campus, the responses of
the various categories of respondents are as presented in table 10.
Table 10
Respondents' View on the use of Downward Communication
Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 1 1 5 4.9 96 94.1 102 100
S.M.N-T 7 35.0 13 65.0 20 100
S.S. 1 1.6 4 6.3 58 92.1 63 100
J.S. 13 9.1 17 11.9 113 79.0 143 100
S.L. 7 20.6 27 79.4 34 100
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[/
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disseminate information among the internal publics of the institution out of which
more than two-thirds (56.9%) were senior and junior staff. This correlates highly
with Table 4, which showed that there was a positive cohesion between senior and
junior staff as regards internal communication. The high contribution of these two
categories of respondents can be attributed to the fact that they form the bulk of
staff that nonnally receives information from members at the top hierarchy of the
university's administration. Thus they agreed that most of the information
communicated from people in higher authority such as the Vice- Chancellor,
Registrar, Deans of faculties and heads of department and various units take the
form of downward communication. This is therefore in line with the assertion of
Jablin (1979) that this route of communication carries information from people in
position of higher authority to subordinates. In supporting this view, Evans (1994)
also said that downward flow of information is most frequently channeled through
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a.<"1 organization's line of authority from manager to subordinate in a 'report to'
relationship.
Secondly, they were of the view that the information which is
normally communicated through the downward communication channel carried
information on important issues such as goals, objectives, and policies expected to
be achieved over a pa~icular period of time and normally come in ~he form of
bullets, notices, memos, departmental staff meetings, and many more.
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Again Jablin (1979) supported this view when he mentioned that the
means of downward communication includes the use of loudspeakers, periodicals,
telephones, messengers, committees, staff meetings, handbook, company
bulletins, or house journals, bells circulars and queries.
Upward Communication Channel
The next question was whether upward communication channel is used in
the dissemination of information among the internal publics of the university. The
response of the respondents to this question is as depicted in Table 11.
Table 11
Views on the use of Upward Communication
Category
S.M.T
S.M.N-T
S.S.
IS.
S.L.
Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
F % F ~~ F % F %
26 25.5 7 6.9 69 67.6 102 28.2
10 50.0 I 5.5 9 45.0 20 100
15 23.8 11 17.5 37 58.7 63 100
36 25.2 15 10.5 92 64.3 143 100
1 2.9 33 97.1 34 100
From Table 11 it is clear that most of the respondents (66.5%) agree that
upward communication channel is used in the University of Cape Coast to
disseminate information among the internal p~blics of the institution. However
more than half of the senior members (non-teaching) disagreed with the
statement. A further investigation by the researcher revealed that upward
80
communication channel is mostly used by the junior staff in the institution to
communicate feedback on various issues of concern and thus is not normally
employed by people in high authority such as the senior 'members.
This channel of communication according to Wright and Noe (1995) takes
the form of progress reports, or information about success and failures of
individuals or work groups reporting to the receiver of the message. He further
stresses that sometimes, employees also send suggestions or complaints upward
through the organization's hierarchy. In the University of Cape Coast too, tllis
channel is usually used by people (staff and students) to carry their views to their
superiors (administrators and heads of departments or immediate bosses). One of
the laid down principles of channeling information from students to the
administrator is through the Junior Common Room Committees (JCRC's) of the
various halls. In responding to tllls question however, some of the student leaders
whose views were sought for tllls study confIrmed the use of this chatmel
especially among the students. This is evident in the fact that 33 students
constituting over 97.1% of the total of 34 student leaders included in the study
agreed with the statement. They however complained about the inadequacy of
such media as suggestion boxes on the campus to enable them air their views on
various issues of concern when the need arises.
In the view of the senior staff too, even though upward communication
channel officially exists it is less utilized because the media such as suggestion
boxes are woefully inadequate or do not exist at all in most of the faculties and
department.
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These sentiments expressed by the respondents are consistent with the
assertion of Gibson & Hodgetts (1986) that most of the strategies for upward
communication are not well packaged. Also, the vie~ of Gibson & Hodgetts
(1990) that employee satisfaction with upward communication in most
organizations tends to be lower than their satisfaction with downward
communication is clearly upheld by the findings of this research. A comparison of
Tables 10 and 11 reveals that whereas 81.9% of the respondents agreed that
downward communication is commonly used in the dissemination of information
in the University of Cape Coast, 66.5% of them supported upward
communication. It is therefore very clear that the necessary measures ought to be
taken by the university authorities to ensure that the internal publics appreciate
and use tins system of communication to enh~ce effective information flow in
the institution.
Horizontal Communication Channel
On the issue of whether horizontal communication is normally used in the
dissemination of information among tile internal publics of the university, the
views ofthe respondents were as represented in the Table 12.
82
Table 12
of the opinion that people at various levels within the university's hierarchical
Majority of the respondents (80.4%) agreed with the statement. They were
Total
F %
102 100
20 100
63 100
143 100
34 9.4
%
100
64.8
73.0
87.3
76.9
. Agree
F
22
89
110
20
46
4.9
16.1
%
17.6
19.0
Uncertain
6
5
12
23
F
17.6
%
7.9
7.0
7.8
Disagree
6
10
5
8
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S.L.
J.S.
S.S.
S.M.N-T
S.M.T
Category
Views on the use of Horizontal Communication
structure do communicate more frequently with each other. For instance it is very
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common to fmd a head of department of one unit discussing matters of mutual
interest with another head of department of another unit. The situation is even
more improved as a result of the occasional heads of department meetings
organized by various faculties within the university to enhance performance
delivery. Most of the faculties have at least two of such meetings every semester.
This does not include emergency meetings held periodically. This revelation
however, contravenes the assertion of Frank (1984) that studies on lateral
communication indicate that it still lags behind those on vertical communication.
83
Diagonal Communication Channel
Diagonal communication according to Donnelly et al (1987) is probably
the least used channel ofcommunication in organization's. This view seems to be
,
true as depicted in Table 13
Table 13
Respondents' Vie~s on Diagonal Communication
Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 36 35.2 38 37.2 28 27.6 102 100
S.M.N-T 4 20 12 60 4 20 20 100
S.S. 14 22.2 28 44.4, 21 33.4 63 100
1.S. 29 20.2 4 2.8 74 51.7 143 100
S.L. 12 35.3 6 17.6 16 47.1 34 100
Table 13 reveals that an average of less than half of the respondents
(39.5%) agreed to the statement that diagonal communication channel is normally
used to disseminate information in their departments. Thus, more than half of the
respondents (60.5%) do not support the statement. In other words, the assertion of
Donnelly et al (1987) that the least used channel of communication is diagonal
communication is true. However this state of affairs does not augur well for
smooth running of organizations. As identified by Donnelly et aI, the use of a
diagonal channel would minimize the time and effort expended by the
organization.
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In the next section, the various categories of respondents were asked to
indicate whether the grapevine exist in the university community and is an
effective channel ofcommunication. Their answers are presented in Table 14.
Table 14
Grapevine as a Means of Communication
Category
S.M.T
S.M.N-T
S.S.
J.S.
S.L.
Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
38 37.3 19 18.6 45 44.1 102 100
4 20.0 14 70.0 2 10.0 20 100
19 30.2 19 30.2 25 39.6 63 100
38 26.6 35 24.5 70 48.9 143 100
15 44.1 1 2.9 18 53.0 34 100
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We learn from Table 14 that 44.2% representing less than half of the
respondents agreed with the statement. 31.4% of them however disagreed whereas
24.3% were uncertain. This information suggests that more than half of the
respondents did not really see the grapevine as an effective means of
communication in the university. However, according to Donnelly et al (1978)
research indicates that over 75% of the information in the grapevine is accurate.
This view was support~d by Locker (1992) when he described the grapevine as
the informal informational network in an organ~zation, which carries gossips and
rumours as well as accurate information. Again, writing on how accurate the
85
I grapevine is, Arnold (1983) stressed that more than 80% of the information that
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comes over the grapevine is accurate. In an interview with the Assistant Registrar
for Publications, he emphasized that the concept of grapevine could be likened to
"propaganda". In his view, " whenever a vacuum is created as far as news
sharing, soliciting/giving are concerned, it is filled by the grapevine mechanism. It
is a basic human behavior which exists, no matter how efficient the
communication lines are they are".
It is therefore very important for the university authorities to adopt this
informal system of communication to tap information from the internal publics
and use it in their daily solutions to problems that may arise. This will also go a
long way to prevent unexpected riots and unnecessary tension that crops up at
times between the authorities and all the other internal publics.
It can be concluded from the discussions that there are quite a number of
communication channels in use at the University of Cape Coast for the
dissemination of information among its internal publics. These include
downward, upward, horizontal, diagonal and the grapevine communication. From
the information gathered, it is evidenced that downward, horizontal and upward
communication channels are the mostly used in the university in the
dissemination of information. This is because majority of the respondents (an
average of 77.0%) of the respondents agreed to the statement that these channels
were usually adopted in the dissemination of information. The grapevine and
86
Idiagonal communication methods however are not popular with the internal
publics in the university. This view is supported by the fact that in both cases less
than half of the respondents agreed to the fact that they employed these
communication methods in spreading information.
Media of Communication Commonly used to Disseminate
Information among the Internal Publics of the University
Research Question 3: In the views of lecturers, administrators, senior and
junior staff, as well as students, what medium of communication is used in the
dissemination of information within the University of Cape Coast and to what
extent are they effective?
This research question was asked to identify the various media through which
information is disseminated to the internal publics of the university and examine
how effective they have been in achieving this purpose. Question numbers 15-26
in the questionnaire were used to answer this research question.
Bulletin
On the question of how often the respondents obtained information from
officially published bulletin of the university, their responses were as presented in
Table 15.
87
Table 15
The Use of BuIIetin in the Dissemination of Information
: -
Never Seldom Often Total
Category
% F %F % F % F
I S.M.T 6 5.9 96 94.1 102 100II
I I S.M.N-T 10 50.0 10 50.0 20 100
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j S.S. ., 4.8 11 17.5 49 77.7 63 100..J
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J.S. 3 2.1 32 22.4 108 75.5 143 100
;1 S.L. 7 20.6 12 35.3 15 44.1 34 100
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From Table 15, majority of respondents (76.8%) representing more than
three-quarters of the respondents said they obtain a lot of information on events
that take place in the university through reading of official bulletins. Thus, they
often read the bulletins. Out of this, 26.6% were senior members (teaching). This
was attributed to the fact that the teaching staff has high level of education and
thus knows the essence of gathering information from reliable sources such as the
bulletin. On the other hand, 19 out of a total of 34 student leaders said they either
seldom or never read the bulletin. Thus, more than half (55.8%) of the student
leaders either does not read the bulletins or seldom does so. This according to
some of the student leaders can be attributed to the fact that most students have so
much work on their hat:tds that they have very little time for other things such as
reading of information from the bulletin which is not easily assessible to them.
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Others too do not really have :my reason for not reading the bulletin. They are just
not intercstcd in doing so.
The university of Cape Coast. like many other tertiary institutions in the
world publishes a ealcndar annually. TIlis contains important dates such as re-
opcning dates. oricntation for fresh studcnts, registration of courses, matriculation
and graduation dates. When asked about how often the respondents obtain
infonnation from this source. their views were as indicated in Table 16.
Table 16
The use the Uninrsity Calendar in the Dissemination of Information
Never Seldom Often Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 27 26.5 75 73.5 102 100
S.M.N-T 12 60.0 8 40.0 20 100
S.S. 1.6 9 14.3 53 84.1 63 100
J.S. 2 1.4 45 31.5 96 67.1 143 100
S.L. 6 17.6 13 38.3 15 44.1 34 100
From Table 16, majority of the respondents (68.3%) said they often obtain
ir.fonnation on various activities in the university from the annual calendar. This
according to the respondents can be attributed to the fact that all ofiices in the
university as well as senior members (both teaching and non teaching) are
supplied with copies of the universitj calendar annually.
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In a discussion with the Assist~t Registrar in charge of publications, he
stated emphatically that supply of the university calendar to the various offices
and staffis one of the university's policies. He stressed that since the institution is
an academic enterprise, it is important to keep all the publics of the university
well informed of various activities and occasions of the tmiversity, hence the
publication of the Calendar. He however reiterated that due to inadequacy of
funds, the students unlike the other internal publics of the university do not have
the privilege ofobtaining copies of the University Calendar for free. He was quick
to add that students as well as the general public could purchase copies of the
University Calendar from the recognized bookshops and Junior Common Room
Committees (JCRC's) on the university campus, at affordable prices.
Commenting on this very issue, some student leaders suggested that it would be
appropriate for the authorities of the university to include the cost of the annual
calendar in the students' bill to ensure that students are also well informed. This
may account for the fact that more than half (55.9%) of the student leaders
included in the study said they seldom or never obtained information on various
activities of the university through the annual calendar. In another development,
one lecturer passed a comment that, though the calendar is a very effective means
of information dissemination, it is sometimes released to the university
community later than expected.
The next question the researcher asked was whether the student handbook
is a reliable and effective source of inforn1ation and how often they received
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infonnation from this source. The responses of the respondents were as indicated
in Table 17
Table 17
I The use of the Students' Handbook in the Dissemination of Information
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I Never Seldom Often Total
I Category, F % F % F % F %
I S.M.T 26 25.5 76 74.5 102 100I
Ii S.M.N-T 20 100 20 100
Ii s.s. 6 9.5 15 23.8 42 66.7 63 100
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143 100I J.S. 23 16.1 16 11.2 104 72.7
S.L. 1 2.9 15 44.2. 18 52.9 34 100
From Table 17, majority of the respondents (71.8%) indicated that they
often received infonnation from the student handbook. The student handbook is
an annual publication of the university, which clearly spells out the rules and
regulations used in governing the institution with particular emphasis on the
students. It is reviewed yearly to reflect any new changes and amendments to the
institution's regulations. It is however clear from Table 17 that close to half of the
student leaders included in the study said they seldom or never obtained
infonnation from the students' handbook. This according to the students can be
attributed to the fact thai they hardly go through the handbooks after the first
semester of the first year. Also, a lot of students misplaced their handbooks before .
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the end of the first year whiles others ~aid they had so much work to do that they
hardly find time to go through the student handbook.
The respondents were asked whether they obtained information from the
annual reports of the Vice- Chancellor on the University. Their responses are
presented in Table 18.
Table 18
Information from the Vice -Chancellor's (V.e.'s) Report
Never Seldom Often Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 46 45.1 56 54.9 102 100
S.M.N-T 20 100.0 20 100
S.S. 2 3.2 11 17.5 50 79.4 63 100
J.S. 11 7.7 34 23.8 98 68.5 143 100
S.L. 6 17.6 7 20.6 21 61.8 34 100
As indicated in Table 18, majority (67.7%) of the respondents, agreed to
the view that they often obtained information on the institution from the Vice-
Chancellor's (V.C's) annual report. A careful glance at the Table depicts that for
each of the five categories of respondents, more than 50% actually contacted the
V.C's report for information. This to a large extent shows that V.C's report serves
as a popular source of information for the university conmlunity. Commenting on
this, the Assistant Registrar in charge ofpublications said in a discussion "that the
V.C's report is a very reliable source ofinfomlation for the University cOnmlunity
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since it is an embodiment of various issues on all the various sections,
departments, faculties and units of the university". Supporting this view, some of
the senior members (non teaching) included in the study were of the opinion that
the V.C's report touches on all the important issues which need to be addressed
and thus gives the reader a broad view of events that have taken place in the
institution over the year under review. They also commended the authorities for
making the report available to all the teaching and non-teaching staff and urged
them to keep up with the good work. Perhaps this explains why all the senior
members (non-teaching) responded favorably that they often acquired a lot of
important information from the v.C's annual report.
The student leaders interviewed on the other hand were of the view that in
as much as they agree that the V.C's report is a reliable source of information; it
must be made more accessible to the students. Thus, considering the importance
of the source of information to the university community, including students, it
would not be out of place for the students to given copies of the V.C's report and
the cost included in their annual bills. Also, faculty, departmental and all libraries
should be supplied with copies of the V.C's reports.
The next question was how often the tespondents obtained information
from memoranda. In response to the question, the views of the respondents were
as represented in Table 19.
93
Table 19
seminars. Even within the various faculties and departments, the memoranda have
source. Also, it was observed that the university authorities use it to remind the
When asked further why they relied so much on the memoranda for information,
most of the respondents said it is more reliable since one could easily trace its
Never Seldom Often Total
F % F % F % F %
18 17.6 84 82.4 102 100
8 40.0 12 60.0 20 100
2 3.2 16 25.4 45 71.4 63 100
15 10.5 32 22.4 96 67.1 143 100
7 20.6 12 35.3 15 44.1 34 100
various departments, units and faculties of important meetings, workshop and
The information in Table 19 clearly shows that memoranda serve as one of
the main sources of information for the university's internal publics. Majority of
the respondents (69.6%) said they often obtained information from this source.
J.S.
S.L.
S.S.
S.M.T
S.M.N-T
Category
Obtaining Information from Memoranda
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always been and continue to be one of the most reliable sources of information. It
is said to be one of the most popular media of communication among the internal
publics of the institution.
However, according to the research findings, memoranda do not seem so
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popular among students as a medium of communication. This is evidenced in the
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fact that a greater percentage of the stu~ent leaders included in the study (about
56%) shared the view that they seldom or never obtained information from
memoranda. In his bid to know what accoutered for this, the researcher engaged
some of the student leaders in a discussion. It came to light that since the student
leaders do not fall within mainstream administration, they receive a minimal
amount of memorandum on matters that concern them.
In response to the question of whether notice boards are effective
communication media and how often the internal publics of the university
obtained information from this source the perception of the respondents were as
indicated in Table 20.
Table 20
Information from Notice Boards
Never Seldom Often Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 2 2.0 100 98.0 102 100
S.M.N-T 20 100 20 100
S.S. I 1.6 3 4.7 59 93.7 63 100
J.S. 4 2.8 139 97.2 143 100
S.L. 34 100 34 100
Table 20 shows that average majority of the respondents (97.2%) agree to
the statement that notice boards are an effective medium of communication and
thus they often obtain a lot of information on the activities in the university from
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this source. In an observation made by the re;earcher whiles on visit to various
departments, faculties and units of the university, it was observed that almost all
the various sections of the university had notice boards fixed on walls with
numerous notices and posters fixed on them. It was also noted that the
departments in the various faculties had notice boards on which information such
as students' examination results, time tables for departmental lectures, seminars
and workshops are displayed. In a chat with some of the respondents, they
pointed out that, to them the notice boards have been instrumental in the
dissemination of information. This is because they can be found in various
departments and sections of the university including the halls of residence. They
however condemned the situation where some notices are displayed at
unauthorized places on the university campus other than the notice boards. These
include wa1ls, trees and electric poles. According to them, acts of this nature tend
to degrade the beauty of the institution. In the view of the lecturers, the notice
boards have been a source of reminder for them, especially those fixed in their
offices. Records of important meetings, seminars, workshops and other official as
well as personal appointments are kept on them.
A question was asked to find out whether the electronic media such as the
FM Station on Campus served as an effective medium of communication for the
University community. In reaction to the question of how often the respondents
received information from this source, their views were as presented in Table 21.
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Table 21
The use of the Electronic Media in the Dissemination of Information in the
University
Category
S.M.T
S.M.N-T
Never
F %
Seldom
F %
28 27.5
1 5.0
Often
F %
74 72.5
19 95.0
Total
F %
102 100
20 100
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S.S.
J.S.
S.L.
2
5
1
3.2
3.3
2.9
12
21
18
19.0
14.8
52.9
49
117
15
77.8
81.9
44.2
63 100
143 100
34 100
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Table 21 reveals that most of the respondents (75. 7%) said the electronic
media is an effective source of information for the internal publics of the
institution and thus they often receive a lot of information from this source. The
respondents made particular reference to the FM Stations on the University
Campus. There are two FM Stations on Campus. These are Radio Valco
(93.5MHz) and Radio ATL (100.5MHz). All the various categories of
respondents shared the view that these radio stations have contributed
tremendously in the dissemination of information on the University Campus. The
student leaders said they receive a lot of information on meetings, lecture
schedules, announcement of important events on Campus and a variety of general
information from these FM Stations. Some of the students also perceived these
FM Stations as very useful since it is easy for one to retrieve lost propeliies
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through announcements on these networks, which cost for lesser than those in
town.
The lecturers also supported the perception 'of the students. They
indicated the FM Stations have been beneficial to them because they obtain a lot
of news on variety of subjects of concern from these stations, which also enrich
their content for lectures. In addition to all these, they enjoy various discussions
and interviews broadcast by the Stations. It is equally easier for them to pass on
information to their students through these stations.
The views of the Junior and Senior Staff as well as the Senior Members
(non-teaching) did not differ from that of the lecturers and students. The Junior
Staff reiterated that the presence of the FM Statipns on the University Campus has
made it far easier to call members of various associations on campus to various
meetings, especially the Teachers and Educational Workers Union (TEWU).
However, all categories of respondents expressed some misgivings about
these FM stations. They were of the opinion that since they are established on the
university's premises, these FM stations should not charge anything for certain
categories of services such as announcement on a lost item for members of the
university community. Also other announcements by the various faculties,
departments, and units should cost lesser than the current rates being charged.
One other electronic source of information that the lecturers in particular
mentioned is the computer. To catch up with the advanced world of technology,
the University of Cape Coast introduced the Online Student Information Service
(OSIS) into its data process system at the commencement of the 2001/2002
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Table 22
The Use of BiIIboards for the Dissemination oflnformation
reasons given for their view was the fact that there are very few billboards on the
Never Seldom Often Total
F % F % F % F %
23 22.5 59 57.8 20 19.6 102 100
1 5.0 13 65.0 6 30.0 20 100
19 30.2 24 38.1 20 31.7 63 100
81 56.6 43 30.1 19 13.3 143 100
28 82.4 6 17.6 34 100
The study also sought to find out how often the respondents obtained
I.S.
information on the institution and its activities from the billboards. Among the
Majority of the respondents (82.0%) stated that they seldom or never had
S.L.
S.S.
S.M.N-T
S.M.T
Category
internal publics ofthe institution. The answers provided are presented in Table 22.
information about the institution from billboards displayed on the university's
campus and how effective they are in the dissemination of information among the
examination scores of their students periodically.
academic year. This computer software makes it possible for all lecturers to key in
university campus for the transfer of information to the university community. In
fact, careful observation round the campus confirms the assertion of the
respondents. At both the old and new site campus there are a few billboards,
which can best be described as directional signs since they basically give
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infonnation on the location of specific places such as halls of residence, faculties
and schools, departments and units in the university. There is therefore the need
for the institution to maximize, the use of billboards in the dissemination of
infonnation. In the view of respondents, the Public Relations unit should be made
to champion this course.
When asked how often the respondents gave comments on the university's
activities through suggestion boxes placed at vantage points on the university
campus, their responses were as indicated in Table 23.
Table 23
The Use of Suggestion Box for the Dissemination of Information
Category
S.M.T
! S.M.N-T
Ii s.s.
fi J.S.
S.L.
Never Seldom Often Total
F % F % F % F %
63 61.8 34 33.3 5 4.9 102 100
12 60.0 5 25.0 3 15.0 20 100
18 28.6 35 55.6 10 15.8 63 100
76 53.1 57 39.9 10 7.0 143 100
19 55.9 15 44.1 34 100
It is clear in Table 23 that only an average of 8.4% of the respondents said
they often expressed their views on various activities of the university through the
use of suggestion boxes. Again, the Table shows that 91.6% of the respondents
intimated that they never or seldom give comments on various issues of the
university through suggestion boxes. The researcher found this situation
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worrisome since the expression of one's view of issues of interest helps to reduce
the occurrence of unpleasant situations such as conflicts and misunderstanding. It
is evident from table 23 that' the use of suggestion box as a medium of
communication is not popular with most of the departments of the University of
Cape Coast. During an observation exercise to confirm the responses to the
questionnaire, the poor usage of the suggestion box as a medium of
communication in the university was found to be true. In fact, apart from the halls
of residence most of the departments, sections, units, and faculties in the
university have no suggestion boxes placed at vantage points for this purpose. In a
discussion with some of the student leaders, they were of'the opinion that, though
this medium could have helped prevent a lot of the riots and misunderstanding in
the university, it is virtually impossible for the students to utilize it because the
boxes are not even present. Asked whether in the absence of the boxes it is not
possible to submit their suggestions directly to the officers concerned, tlley were
quick to respond that though that would have been possible, for fear of being
victimized, they prefer to keep their comment than to disclose them directly to
whoever is concerned. Interestingly however, the lecturers who occupy a high
position on the university's organizational structure are also faced with a similar
problem. This is evidenced in the fact tlmt less than half (38.2%) of the lecturers
said they often communicate their views on matters of concern through the use of
the suggestion box. In a discussion with the ,Assistant Registrar in charge of
public relations however, he was of the view iliat the absence of suggestion boxes
on the university campus might be due to ilie fact iliat the major clients of the
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institution (students) are in direct relationship with the university authorities. So
all their complaints could be directed to the to the institution's authorities through
various channels such as the Junior Common Room Coriunittees
(J .C. R. C) and the office of the Faculty of Students' Affairs.
It is an undeniable fact that seminars and workshops are held by various
institutions and o~ganizations to address specific needs of both individuals and
groups of people. They are usually brief intensive educational programmes for a
relatively small group that focuses especially on techniques and skills in a
particular field. In fact, they are meetings where information is given and
discussed. To enquire the extent to which this important source of information is
utilized in the University of Cape Coast in the dissemination of information
among its internal publics, the researcher asked the respondents how often they
obtained information on the university's activities from seminars and workshops
.The views of the respondents were as presented in Table 24.
Table 24
The Use of Seminars and Workshops in the ~isseminationoflnformation .
I Never Seldom Often Total
II
Category F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 26 25.5 76 74.5 102 100
S.M.N-T 4 1.1 16 4.4 20 100
S.S. 6 1.7 18 5.0 39 10.8 (3 100
J.S. 23 6.4 51 14.1 69 19 143 100
S.L. 6 1.7 1 27 7.5 34 100
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From Table 24, 62.7% of the respond.;:nts explained that they often obtain
information on the university's activities from seminars and workshops. This
means that, various faculties, departments and units of the institution organize
seminars and workshops for the staff in order to update their knowledge and skills
in their various fields of specialization. Some staff of the accounts section for
instance said periodic seminars and workshops are organized by the department to
brief them on current trends in their field of specialization such as new financial
regulations and amendments to the existing ones.
In the view of the lecturers, periodic semmars and workshops are
organized to review their performance in delivering of their subjects. This is done
on departmental and subject basis. Various topics of interest such as curricular
review, new teaching methods, and methods <?f assessment are treated at such
meetings to equip them with the needed skills for enhanced delivery of
performance in their various fields of specialization. One lecturer however said all
efforts must be made by the university authorities to increase the frequency with
which such important activities are held for its staff.
For the administrators (senior members-non teaching) seminars and
workshops are regular features and in fact part of their normal routine work. This
may not necessarily be linked directly to their work but for the fact that they
occupy such offices, they need to attend some of these. For instance, the
Assistant Registrar in charge of student Affairs may have to attend a function
organized by student leaders for the entire students' body or a cross section of it.
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From the discussion above it can be deduced that there are many media
through which information is.communicated to the various internal publics of the
University of Cape Coast. Media such as Notice Boards, Bulletins, Electronic
Media, Students handbook, Memoranda, V.C.'s Report, Seminars and
Workshops, are most of the time used in disseminating information to the internal
publics of the university. According to the Senior Assistant Registrar for public
relations, other media such as telephones and flyers help a lot in the dissemination
of information among the internal publics of the university. On the other hand,
Billboards and suggestion box are not that popular with the university in the
spread of information.
Barriers to Communication Flow in the University of Cape Coast
Research Question 4: In the perception of the internal publics of the
University of Cape Coast, what are some of the impediments to smooth flow of
information within the institution? This research question was meant to identify
the barriers to the smooth flow of information among the internal publics of the
university. Question items 27 - 35 in the questionnaire were used to elicit
responses from the respondents to answer this research question.
Semantic Problem
Semantic problem refers to the use of words that have several meanings in
different context. As cited in Donnelly et al (1987) it is the unfortunate situation
where the same words ~ay mean entirely different things to different ;Jeople. The
views of the respondents on the extent to which semantic problems serve as
barriers to communication and information flow were as stated in Table 25.
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Table 25
Views on Semantic Problems
Disagree Uncertain -Agree Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
8.M.T 51 50.0 2 2.0 49 48.0 102 100
S.M.N-T 14 70.0 2 10.0 4 20.0 20 100
8.S. 20 31.7 4 6.4 39 61.9 63 100
J.8. 55 38.5 7 4.9 81 56.6 143 100
S.L. 13 38.2 21 61.8 34 100
Data obtained as shown in Table 25 indicates that more than half (53.6%)
of the respondents agreed that semantic problem is a barrier to effective
communication flow in the university of Cape Coast. This situation is not good
for efficient delivery in an academic environment like the university, because
one's ability to communicate effectively is somehow dependent on the meaning
derived from the message being communicated.
Commenting on tillS issue, the junior staff was of the opinion that their
superiors sometimes use big words, wruch they find difficult to understand. Also,
the meaning they give to their superiors' words; sometimes differ from what they
(superiors) want to convey to them Gunior staff). These views expressed by the
junior staff ties in with the assession of Donnelly et al (1987) that because words
mean different things to different people it is possible for a communicator to
speak the same language as a receiver but still not transmit understanding. They
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went further to emphasize that because differ~nt groups use words differently,
communication often can be impeded. This is especially true with abstract or
technical terms and phrases. As indicated in Table 2, the bulk of the junior staff
had the lowest qualification in terms of educational background. They therefore
find it difficult to assimilate the instruction given by their superiors especially if it
is too technical or abstract.
In the view of the seruor members,though the terms used in their
communication with subordinates may not be that easy for them to understand,
they have every right to ask for further explanation. On whether poor listening
habits of members of the university community is a barrier to communication
flow in the institution, more than half of the respondents (54.7) supported the
statement as indicated in Table26.
Table 26
Views on Poor Listening Habits
Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 43 42.2 9 8.8 50 49 102 100
S.M.N-T 13 65.0 7 35.0 20 100
S.S. 26 41.3 6 9.5 33 52.4 63 100
1.S. 52 36.4 9 6.3 80 55.9 143 100
S.L. 6 .17.6 28 82.4 ;'4 100
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Thus they agreed that the listening habits of the members of the
community, to a very large extent hindered smooth flow of infornlation among
the internal public of the institution, especially superiors and subordinates.
Listening should consume about half of the time that a superior and subordinate
spend together (Hemstreet & Batty, 1984 p.308). Unfortunately this is not the
case in the University of Cape Coast as shown in Table 26. This may be so
because most of the time the receiver and the sender fail to listen. The situation is
even worse if the exchange of information is between a superior and a
subordinate. In the case of UCC, administrators and subordinates interact a lot in
the normal course of work. Thus any instance of divided attention on the part of
either superiors or subordinates greatly impact negatively on delivery of their
daily expected output, which sometimes lead to conflicts and tension among
them. In addition to this, some of the respondents said they genuinely have
hearing impairment problems, which sometimes affects their ability to listen and
interpret the views of their work colleagues as they (the senders) expect them (the
receivers) to perceive it.
The respondents were requested to indicate whether the emotional state of the
senders and receivers of information serves as hindrance to communication flow
in the university community. Table 27 indicates their responses.
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Table 27
Emotional State of the Sender and Receiver
Disagree Uncertain . Agree Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 5 4.5 34 33.3 63 61.8 102 100
S.M.N-T 1 5.0 7 35.0 12 60.0 20 100
S.S. 2 3.2 14 22.2 47 74.6 63 100
J.S. 10 7.0 20 14.0 113 79.0 143 100
S.L. 1 2.9 5 14.7 28 82.4 34 9.4
It can be observed from the table that majority of the respondents (71.6%)
were of the view that the emotional state of the internal publics of the institution
sometimes hinders the smooth flow of information. This is because the university
is made up of people from different cultures with varied attitudes, beliefs and
emotions. An issue bothering a communicator (sender or receiver) is therefore
likely to influence his reaction to various issues he or she is confronted with. For
instance, when the sender of information is angry, he is very likely to portray his
anger in the tone in which the message is communicated though the recipient
might not necessarily be the cause of his anger. This could change the actual
meaning of the information.
Again, from Table 27, it is clear that the student leaders (82.4%), junior
(79.0%) and senior staff (74.6%) greatly supported the statement. This may be
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I due to the fuct that those in this category of respondents out number the senior
mem"bers by far.I
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The researcher asked a 'luestion on whether mistrust or credibility is n
r barrier to communication in the uniyersity of Cape Coast. TIle respondents' \iewsI
I were as summarized in Table 27.!
I Table 28I
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i Views on I\Iistrust and Credibilityi
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I Disagree Uncertain Agree Totali
I Category
I F 0' F % F 0' F 0',0 ,0 ,0
I S.M.T 39 38.2 6~ 61.8 102 100.J
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I S.M.N-T 5 25.0 4 20.0 11 55.0 20 100
I S.S. 14 22.2 10 15.9 39 61.9 63 100
I J.S. 25 17.5 12 8.4 106 74.1 143 100
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S.L. 6 17.6 28 82.4 34 100
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From Table 28, an average of 67.0% of the respondents supported the
statement. TIle statistical information gathered indicates that mistrust is a great
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barrier to communication and information flow in the institution. TIns affirnls the
view of Donnelly et al (1987) that 'the level ofcredibility that the receiver assigns
to the communication directIy aftects how the receiver \iews and reacts to the
words, and actions of the conmlunicator. Again, as the figures indicate, there is a
high level of nllstrust among the internal publics of the university. In an attempt
to get to the root cause of tile situation, the researcher had an infonnni discussion
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with some staff (both junior and senior) as well as a cross-section of the student
leaders. It came to light that since the university's communication process moves
along the various lines of authority as depicted in the organizational structure,
subordinates in particular have had some previous experience with superiors and
this has affected the degree of credibility they attach to communication with such
people in authority. One worker put it bluntly that "some of the superiors are
dishonest, manipulative and cannot be trusted".
In another instance, some workers said anytime they discussed issues with
their superiors, parts of the information gets leaked to the university community
and they strongly believe it is their bosses who let out such vital information.
In order to determine whether poor human relations among the internal publics of
the University is a barrier to communication in the institution, the respondents
were asked to show their response by choosing one of the alternatives given for
this question.
Table 29
Views on Poor Human Relations
Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
8.M.T 5 4.9 2 2.0 95 93.1 102 100
8.M.N-T 6 1.6 1 5.0 13 65.0 20 100
8.8. 15 23.8 13 20.6 35 55.6 63 100
J.8. 14 9.8 21 14.7 108 75.5 l43 100
8.L. 34 100.0 34 100
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From Table 29, an average of 77.8% of the respondents agreed that poor
human relations among the internal publics of the University is a barrier to
communication flow. To ascertain the reason for this state of affairs, the
researcher enquired from some of the respondents what accounts for this. Most of
them were of the opinion that because the University system classifies the various
levels of authority, most people who do not belong to a particular group may not
want to mix with that group. The case is even worse if it turns out to be the
superior-subordinate kind of relationship. For instance, it is quite difficult for a
conservancy labourer to be seen in the mist of administrators. In most cases
where this happens, it normally turns out that the superior would be issuing out
instructions to the subordinate about a particular work that ought to be performed.
Communication equipment such as telephones, computers and public
address systems, contribute a lot to effective communication the world over. To
enquire of what impact such equipment can have on general communication in the
University of Cape Coast if faulty the researcher asked the respondents to indicate
whether faulty communication equipment are a barrier to communication flow in
the University. Their views were as presented in Table 30
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Table 30
Faulty Communication Equipment
Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
Category
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 34 33.3 5 4.9 63 61.8 102 100
S.M.N-T 4 20.0 16 80.0 20 100
S.S. 9 14.3 2 3.2 52 82.5 63 100
J.S. 10 7.0 10 7.0 123 86.0 143 100
S.L. 4 11.8 2 5.9 28 82.3 34 100
As depicted in Table 30, most of the respondents were in support of the
statement. An average of 78.5% of all the different categories of respondents
shared the view that communication in the University setting is rendered
ineffective when communication equipments such as telephone sets, computers
get faulty. Not only does it render communication ineffective but also slows
down the rate of productivity in the institution considerably. In the case of the
University of Cape Coast, it is worrying to note from the research conducted that
a lot of offices have phones that are not working. These include fixed telephom:
lines as well as intercom. When the staff especially were interviewed to ascertain
the reason for this state of affair, majority of them blamed it on the poor delivery
of services by the only fixed line telecommunication providers in the Central
Region - Ghana Telecom Company Ltd. The Senior Staff in particular were
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worried about the slow response by the Ghana Telecommunication Company to
remedy faults that are reported.
Also, as an institution of higher learning, the University of Cape Coast is
gradually expanding its communication system through the use of the ICT.
However whenever there are breakdowns in machines used for this pm-pose such
as the computers, switches and Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) it takes a long
time to repair and replace the worn out parts. This sometimes causes delays in the
prompt delivery of infonnation, thereby impacting negatively on the rate at which
decisions are made on issues and implementation of such. It is gratifying to note
however that in spite of all these problems the students in the various halls of
residence have taken communication in the halls a step further by instituting new
techniques to enhance smooth flow ofinfonnation in the institution. For instance,
the Junior Common Room Committees (JCRC's) have installed additional fixed
telephone lines at the Porters Lodge to enhance communication between students
of the halls and the general public as well as among themselves. In furtherance of
this, they have also added intercom equipment.that enables incoming calls to be
transferred to the appropriate floors and the respective students. An example is
the Kwame Nkrumah HalJ.
With particular reference to communication between the University
administration and the student body, the research revealed that the FM Stations on
Campus serve as a major medium of communication between these two groups of
respondents. Infonnation on lectures, quizzes, tutorials, etc. are conveyed to
students through this electronic media. Any breakdown at the FM Stations thus
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affects effective communication between the students' body and the University's
authorities. Respondents wcre asked to express their views on whether or not
they perceive noise as a barrier to communication. The information gathered
from their responses is as depicted in Table 31.
Table 31
Noise as a Barrier to Communication
Statement: Noise is a barrier to communication in the university Total
Category Disagree Uncertain Agree
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 2 2.0 1 1.0 99 97.0 102 100
S.M.N-T 1 5.0 1 5.0 18 90.0 20 100
S.S. 5 7.9 7 11.1 51 81.0 63 100
J.S. 18 12.6 40 28.0 85 59.4 143 100
S.L. 7 20.6 27 79.4 34 100
It is very clear from Table 31 that an average majority of the respondents
are of the opinion that noise is a barrier to communication and information flow in
the University of Cape Coast. Whereas as high as 97.0% of the senior members
(Teaching) were in favour, 59.4% of the junior staff responded in affirmation to
the statement. It is interesting to note however that, 90.0%, 81.0%, 79.4% of
senior members (non teaching), senior staff, and student leaders respectively
agreed with the statement.
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TIle findings above give credence to the assertion of Mc Quail (1972) that
noise may occur in the communication process. TIlls, he said it is anything that is
added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is not intended by
the source". Again, Wright and Noe(1995) see noise as "anything that distorts a
message by interfering with the communication process". It can be very
destructive to the organization and takes different forms such as a worn out
printer ribbon that impairs vision as one reads a document, crackling in a phone,
or 'snow' on a television screen
In order to caphrre other barriers to communication flow in the University
of Cape Coast that were not mentioned in the alternatives given, the researcher
asked the respondents whether they have identified any problems with the
communication system. Respondents were to choose either YES or NO. Their
views were as depicted in Table 32
Table 32
Other problems with the University Communication System
Category Yes No Total
F % F %
S.M.T 55 53.9 47 46.1 102 100
S.M.N-T 19 95.0 1 5.0 20 100
S.S. 27 42.9 36 57.1 63 100
J.S. 47 32.9 96 67.1 143 100
S.L. 24 70.6 10 29.4 34 100
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From Table 32, it is clear that an average majority of the respondents
(59.1 %) said they have identified some problems with the communication system
in the university. Their views point to the fact that all is not well in the
communication system currently used in the university. A follow up question to
ascertain some of the impediments to information flow identified gave credence
to the opinion shared by the greater percentage of respondents on this item.
The first and major problem that seemed to cut across the various classes
of respondents is the beauraucracy and red-tapism within the communication
process. Since the university as an organization has a wide organizational
structure, some information which must be received and acted on, get stacked
along the organizational structure and thus create communication gaps among the
various classes of internal publics in the university.
Secondly, information delay IS another hindrance to smooth
communication flow. At times, those who are expected to act on particular issues,
take so much time to do so. For instance a letter of invitation for promotional
interview from the personnel's section may take a long time to reach the
interviewee. In some situations, some prospective interviewee's promotion is
postponed because the invitation might not have gotten to him on time. These
scenarios bread a lot of dissatisfactions among affected staffs and at times
demoralize them completely. Also, productivity is adversely affected when
especially deadlines are very near or in some situations, passes before the delivery
of information to be acted upon by the expected people.
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In addition to all these is the fact that 'some workers can simply not be
bothered about what happens at the units of the institution because such
hindrances do not affect them directly. A case in point is where the Assistant
Registrar in charge of publications lamented seriously about the fact that some
units retard the progress of his outfit by failing to provide requisite information
for publications time. He also lamented that "lack of sophisticated equipment (for
example Laptops and modem printers, inadequacy of skilled personnel and
absence of trlL'1Sparency in the delivery of news items as it emanates from the
authorities" are some of the major problems he has personally identified.
Lastly, the junior staff complained seriously about the unavailability of
equipment to facilitate their activities. Particular reference can be made to the
unavailability of bicycles for the messengers to ensure prompt delivery of
information. In reaction to this however, the senior members were of the opinion
that, excuse by the messengers does not hold' because the various departments
have vehicles which are meant for such purposes.
Minimize the Impediments to Communication Flow in the University orCape
Coast
Research Question 5 : What strategies can be employed to minimize the
impediments to communication flow in the University of Cape Coast?
From our discussions, it is very clear that there are a number of sources of
interference to the communication process. In a working setting, it is even more
common since interactions involve people who do not only have years of
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experience with each other, but communication i~ complicated by the complex
and often a cCinflictual relatior..ship that exists at work.
The research question five (5) therefore, is aimed at identifying some of
the means by which impediments to communication flow can be minimized
among the internal publics of the university of Cape Coast in order to ensure
efficiency and effectiveness in information delivery, decision making and
among the university's internal publics is a strategy that the university authorities
have identified and implemented to improve communication in the institution.
The information gathered is as depicted in Table 33.
Table 33
Utilizing Feedback
Category Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 1 1.0 10 9.8 91 89.2 102 100
S.M.N-T 1 5.0 3 15.0 . 16 80.0 20 100
S.S. 1 1.6 10 15.9 52 82.5 63 100
1S. 5 3.5 22 15.4 116 81.1 143 100
S.L. 6 17.6 28 82.4 34 100
this £tatement. Thus, they agree that utilization offeedback is a strategy already in
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From Table 33, a greater percentage of the respondents (83.0%) supported
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Ii The researcher sought to identify whether the utilization of feedback
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use by the university as an institution to imp~ove communication/information
flow. It is in~eresting to note that for eacl~ of the categories of respondents, not
I - less than 80% support this statement, thus, signifYing the fact that most of them
accept that effective communication is achieved when feedback is fully utilized.
Feedback as an administrative tool for' improvement of communication,
taps basic human needs to improve, to compete, to be accurate. If given properly,
it is almost always appreciated and motivates people to improve. In the view of
Barry (1999), feedback is very important and can be rewarding but it requires
skill, understanding, courage and respect for self and others. Thus, though
feedback is already utilized, it is very important for the university authorities to
continually educate its internal publics on the uses of feedback and what it takes
to maintain an effective feedback system within the institution. This can be done
at the various departmental units and faculty levels. As Pearson (1983) puts it,
"Withholding constructive feedback is like sending people out on a dangerous
hike without a compass". This is especially true in today's fast changing and
demanding workplace.
Organizational success is achieved as a result of a combination of many
variables. One such ingredient is decision making. Informed decisions are made
only when the accurate information is received by decision makers. In an attempt
to assess the views of the respondents on whether timely delivery of information
would help improve communication in the University of Cape Coast, the views of
the respondents were as captured in Table 34.
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Table 34
Timely Delivery of Information
Category Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 2 2.0 15 14.7 85 83.3 102 100
S.M.N-T 1 5.0 4 20.0 IS 75.0 20 100
S.S. 6 9.5 57 90.5 63 100
J.S. 4 2.8 21 14.7 118 82.5 143 100
S.L. 6 17.6 4 11.8 24 70.6 34 100
From Table 34 the trend of responses regarding the perception of
respondents to the usage of timely delivery of information to improve
communication, 90.5% of the senior staff respondents agreed with this view, as
opposed to 83.3% of Senior Members Non-Teaching. In all, 82.5% of the junior
staff, 75.0% of the senior members non-teaching and 70.0% of the student
leaders, agreed to the statement in that order. The trend here means that the
category of staff that has the highest positive perception of the use of timely
delivery of information for improving communication is the senior staff. This can
be attributed to the fact that they mostly serve as intermediary between the senior
members and the junior staff in the organizational structure.
One other question the researcher asked was on the perception of
respondents on the clarity of information as a tool for enhancement of
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communication in an organizational setting such as' the university. Various views
were expressed andthese have been summarized in Table 35.
Table 35
Clarity of Information
Category Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 1 1.0 20 19.6 81 79.4 102 100
S.M.N-T 1 5.0 19 95.0 20 100
S.S. 1 1.6 14 22.2 48 76.2 63 100
J.S. 10 7.0 28 19.6 105 73.4 143 100
S.L. 6 17.6 28 82.4 34 100
Clearly portrayed in Table 35 is the fact that an overall majority of the
respondents included in the study, share the view that clarity of information
would aid the improvement of information flow in the institution. The senior
I:lembers (non-teaching) formed the group with the most positive perception (95.0
%) of clarity of information as an important tool for enhancement of information
flow in the institution. This trend of response, may be attributed to the fact that
majority of this group of respondents interact frequently with the other categories
of respondents dues to the peculiar nature of their jobs. They occupy such
positions as Assistant registrars, senior assistant registrars, and deputy registrars
of various faculties, schools, departments and centers.
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The next questionnaire item sought, to determine the views of respondents
on the usage Mthe right choice of media as a means ofimproving communication
and information flow in the university. Their perception on this issue is depicted
in Table 35
Table 36
Choice of Media
Category Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 10 9.8 92 90.2 102 100
S.M.N-T 1 5.0 3 15.0 16 80.0 20 100
S.S. 1 1.6 12 19.0 50 79.4 63 100
J.S. 8 5.6 22 15.4 113 79.0 143 100
S.L. 6 17.6 28 82.4 34 100
The data shown in Table 36 portrays clearly the immense support of the
various categories of respondents for the statement. Thus an average of 82.2% of
the respondents were of the opinion that indeed the choice of media for the
conveyance of a message could help improve communication in the institution.
This implies that communication is more effective if it is channeled from the
sender to the receiver through the appropriate media. Their perception is
supported by Bush an? Frohman (1991) who stressed that it is important for the
most appropriate media to be used in communicating among people. Therefore,
in & complex educational environment such as the university, face-to-face
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communication must be used for interview, .meetings' and conferences, oral
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communication must make use of tele~lOnes: radio, etc and memos, letters,
circulars, manuals and newspapers for the ~itten communication
The respondents were required to indicate whether the use of the internet
would help to improve communication among the internal publics of the
University of Cape Coast. Their responses were as indicated in Table 37
Table 37
The use of the Internet
Category Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 10 9.8 22 21.6 70 68.6 102 100
S.M.N-T 3 15.0 4 20.0 13 65.0 20 100
S.S. 4 6.3 18 28.6 41 65.1 63 100
1.S. 7 4.9 59 41.3 77 53.8 143 100
S.L. 7 20.6 6 17.6 21 61.8 34 100
The result as shown in Table 37 depicts that 68.6% of the Senior
Members (Teaching) supported this view as against 65.1 % of the Senior Staff.
The pattern here means that the group of respondents that have the highest
positive attitude to the use of the intemet in improving information and
communication flow in the university is the S.S.T. The outcome might be due to
the availability of internet connectivity points in almost all the offices of lecturers
in the institution. Also, most of the departments have purchased computers for
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their lecturers from the annual v;ults allocated to them: In the department for
Religious Studies and the Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
for instance most lecturers have been supplied with Personal Computers (P.C.'s).
In other offices that have no P.C.'s fixed, there are internet connectivity points
which can be accessed by lecturers provided they have laptops or personal
Computers (p.Co's). Furthermore, a special section of the University's ultra-
modem ICT Centre has been allocated to Senior Members (both teaching and n
on-teaching). In spite of all these, there are hosts of privately operated Cyber
cafe's which provide 24 hours internet service.
With particular reference to the student body, most of them visit the
university's I.C.T. Centre for information on the internet. They also benefit from
the numerous internet Cafe's on the university campus. A lot of students get
information on various issues of concern form the net. It is unfortunate however
that till date students keep complaining about the high cost associated with such
services on Campus.
Again, it is regrettable to note that no conscious effort has been made
by the university authorities to promote the sharing of vital information among the
internal publics of the university through the net. Information such as memoranda,
notice of meetings and events advertisements can be put in private e-mails for
easy access and appropriate response from the concerned publics. Downward,
upward and horizontal communication could be enhanced greatly with the use of
the internet especially ·the use of the e-mail. This view is contrary to the assertion
of Leiner et al (2000) and Singh (2002) that the internet is a mechanism for
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information dissemination and a medium for ccliaborative interaction between
individuals a.id their computers without regard for geographic limitation of space.
Again, from Table 37 it is clear that the least group (53.8%) who have
positive perception of the internet as a tool for improvement in communication
among the internal publics is the Senior Staff (S.S.). This may be so because apart
from secretaries at the various sections of the university, most junior staff do not
have access to computers and thus might not be able to communicate through the
internet.
Respondents were questioned on wheth~r communication in the university
could be improved through frequent departmental meetings. Table 38 brings out
their responses.
Table 38
Frequent Departmental Meetings
Category Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 10 9.8 92 91.2 102 100
S.M.N-T 4 20.0 3 15.0 13 65.0 20 100
S.S. 10 15.9 3 4.8 50 79.4 63 100
J.S. 5 3.5 40 30.0 98 68.5 143 100
S.L. 7 20.6 27 79.4 34 100
As indicated in Table 38, majority of all the groups of respondents share
the common view that frequent departmental meetings would help to enhance
communication in the institution. It is evident from table 38 that 91.2% of S.M.T,
79.4% of S.S, 79.4% of S.L, 68SI.) of J.S. and 65.0% of S.M.N.T agree with the
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statement. They were of the opinion that improvement in communication could be
achieved thr?ugh frequent interaction ~ong ih; different groups of internal
publics. This is because as people engage in consistent interactive activities they
get to know each other and thus relate better among themselves, thereby
encouraging good interpersonal relationship which is so vital for effective
communication. It would also encourage receivers of information to empathize
with the senders by putting themselves in the shoes of the senders of messages for
the purpose of anticipating how the message is likely to be decoded. (Donnelly et
aI, 1987). This is because decoding involves perceptions and the message would
be filtered through the perception of the receiver.
Additionally, departmental meetings could be used to interpret various
issues of concern to the internal publics of the university. These include the
explanation of the organizational communication channel and new policies.
Lastly, the senior members (both teaching and non-teaching) were of the
view that the superior-subordinate relationship among the internal publics of the
university stands a great chance of improvement since frequent staff meetings are
sometimes held for the members of the department.
A question also looked at whether clearly defined communication
channels would aid smooth information flow in the university of Cape Coast.
Table 39 illustrates the responses made by the r~spondents.
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Table 39
Clearly Defined Communication Channels
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Category Disagree Uncertain ,Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 10 9.8 22 21.6 70 68.6 102 100
S.M.N-T 3 15.0 4 20.0 13 65.0 20 100
S.S. 4 6.3 18 28.6 41 65.1 63 100
J.S. 7 4.9 59 41.3 77 53.8 143 100
S.L. 7 20.6 6 17.6 21 61.8 34 100
Table 39 indicates that an average majority of the respondents (62.9%)
agree that clearly defined communication channels would enhance smooth flow of
information in the institution. The organizational communication channel refers to
the pattern of flow of information from the topmost employee of the institution to
the lowest employee in terms of rank and placement on the organizational
,>tructure. The views expressed by the respondents therefore indicate that when
there is a clearly defined communication channel, information flow is enhanced.
This is probably due to the fact that the university's communication channel
moves along the organizational chart of the institution. Therefore, all the internal
publics play key roles in the dissemination of information in the institution and
thus, need to be continuously updated on the laid down channel and procedure for
information flow. To this extent, copies of the organizational structure and
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channel for communication must be placed ir! all the main offices of the
institution s':!ch as faculties, departments and units.
It is evident that as a teaching -learning enterprise students form a major
component of the internal publics of the University of Cape Coast. A question
was therefore asked whether organizing fora for students would help improve
communication in the institution. Table 39 clearly depicts the responses of the
respondents.
Table 40
Organizing Fora for Students
Category Disagree Uncertain Agree Total
F % F % F % F %
S.M.T 16 15.7 10 9.8 76 74.5 102 100
S.M.N-T 3 15.0 4 20.0 13 65.0 20 100
S.S. 1 1.6 24 38.1 38 60.3 63 100
J.S. 25 17.5 20 14.0 98 68.5 143 100
S.L. 1 2.9 1 2.9 32 94.2 34 100
As Table 40 shows, majority of all the five groups ofrespondents (94.2%
of S.L, 74.5% of S.M.T, 68.5% of 1S, 65% of S.M.N.T and 60.3% of S.S)
supported the statement that frequent fora for students would enhance
communication and information flow in the institution. The student leaders (S.L)
in particular opined that, the role of the students in the university could not be
overemphasized. Therefore regular interaction between the university authorities
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and the students body would go a long way ~to impact positively on the
communicat;'on in the university in general and the relationship between the two
publics in particular. Asked whether this has been the practice, the student leaders
included in the study responded in the affirmative. They said this is nonnally
carried out by the university authorities through the Dean of student affairs.
Also the students are represented on the University Council by presidents
of the Students Representative Council (SR.c) and the Graduate Students
Association of Ghana (GRASAG). These two personalities are the mouthpiece of
Students in the University's highest governing body and also serve as the link
between the university's topmost body and students.
The existing relationship between the university authorities and the
student body as mentioned notwithstanding, the student leaders, were of the
opinion that communication in the institution could be taken a step further if the
authorities could occasionally organize open fora for students where the main
principal officers of the institution such as the Vice- Chancellor, Pro-Vice
Chancellor, Registrar and Finance Officer, could be available for personal
interaction with the students. These important personalities could use the
opportunity to enlighten students on current issues that affect them.
At such meetings various issues such as new university policies could be
discussed and the students should be given the opportunity to ask questions that
boarder them. This all-important event could be held once every academic year
and captioned "A day with the V.C". As the overall head of the large university
community, the Vice- Chancellor has a tight schedule, which takes a greater part
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of his time. As Morris et' al (1984) have stated' the head is the "authoritative
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manager of un increasingly complex educational enterprise with a variety of non-
educational sectors of responsibility included in the jurisdiction". It is hoped that
this practice would go a long way to enrich the relationship between the
university authorities and the student body and therefore promote an atmosphere
of peace, for effective teaching, learning and research, as well as reduce unhealthy
occurrences such as student protests and unnecessary student unrest.
In the view to capture other strategies to help minimize the impediments to
communication flow that were not included in the alternatives given in the
questionnaire, the respondents were asked to state some of the strategies that can
be employed. One strategy that engaged the attention of most of the respondents
was the need for senders of information to desist from the use of complex
language and rather adopt very simple words that are easy to assimilate and
interpret. Again, professional people such as lecturers in particular areas should
try as much as possible to avoid using in-group language in communicating with
individuals outside their group. Their assertion supports the view of Donnelly etal
(1987) who opines that senders must remember that effective communication
involves transmitting understanding as well as information. Indeed, there is no
communication if the receiver is unable to comprehend the information sent.
Secondly, the respondents were of the view that all efforts must be made
to maximize the utilitization of the grapevine. They stressed that the grapevine
surely exists in the university and thus the authorities must take advantage of it.
This view expressed, is supported by the view of Davis (1969) that "the grapevine
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is a natural part of a company's total communication system". He further stated
that the grap_evine is 75-95% correct. Hence eve;y effort must be made to enhance
its adoption and usage.
Thirdly, the Assistant Registrar for publications observed that "there is the
need for the university's authorities to ensure transparent, unadulterated, efficient
and effective communication lines. In the case of publications, secretaries to
committees should be up and doing by sending to the section copies of all
meetings that bother on the welfare of staff'.
Finally, it was the hope of the respondents that the university authorities
would periodically organize programmes that would particularly aim at
encouraging good interpersonal relationship among the internal publics of the
institution.
In their opinion, such events are necessary since a lot of the impediments
to information flow could be minimized if both the senders and receivers
understand each other and accept the fact that they all belong to a common
institution and have a common objective-a successful organization. From the
discussion, it is evidenced that in spite of all the problems associated with
communication in the University of Cape Coast, various measures can be
implemented to reduce its effect on the running of the institution. These include
organizing regular staff meetings, student fora, instituting clearly defined
communication channel, choosing the right media for the dissemination of
information and effective utilization offeedback.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In this concluding chapter, the fmdings of the study are summarized,
conclusions are drown and recommendations are made.
Summary
The purpose of the research was to examine the perception of respondents
(senior members, administrative staff and students) on communication and the
flow of information on the university campus. It also sought to identify the kinds
of formal and informal communication channels that exist within the University
of Cape Coast and the e),."tent to which they have been successful in the
dissemination of information among the internal publics of the institution.
Again, the study was meant to further investigate the perception of the
internal publics of the university on the medium of communication used in the
dissemination of information within the University of Cape Coast and the extent
to which they have been effective. Furthermore, it was meant to identify
perception of the respondents on the impediments to the smooth flow of
information within the institution. Finally, the study aimed at finding out the
strategies that couId be employed to minimize the impediments to information
flow. Five research questions were derived out of the above purposes.
The study sought to examine five main issues.
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These are:
1. Perc~ption on communication and info~ation flow among the internal
publics of the university of Cape Co~st
2. Existence of fonnal and infonnal communications channels in the
university of Cape Coast
3. Media used in the dissemination ofinfonnation
4. Impediments to the smooth flow ofinfonnation within the institution.
5. Strategies to be employed to minimize the impediments to information
flow.
The population was made up of 43 senior members in administration, 294
Senior Members (lecturers), 470 Senior Staff, J510 Junior Staff and 35 student
leaders. In all, the population size was 2,352 out of which a sample size of 378
respondents was used. This included 20 Senior Members in administration, 107
Senior Members (lecturers), 65 Senior Staff, 151 Junior Staff and 35 Student
Leaders.
The research design adopted for the study was the descriptive survey,
which was considered most appropriate for conducting the investigation with the
questionnaire being used as the main instrument for the study. A few of the
respondents were however interviewed using the same questionnaire as the
interview guide. Also, the Senior Assistant Registrar for Public Relations and
Assistant Registrar for Publications were interviewed using an interview guide.
The questionnaire was made up of six sections of both close-ended and
open-ended items. The sections were on basic information (biographical data),
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views on communication, vIews on channels of communication, media of
communication, harriers to effective communication flow in the university,
strategies and ways the respondents have found useful in minimizing the
(1) From the study it is clear that communication in the university is not as
impediments to communication flow.
were used to obtained frequencies and percentages.
Coast. The written communication usually takes the form of
Respondents established the fact that written and oral communications are
the most common forms of communication in the University of Cape
the internal publics of the institution.
effective as expected. Information flow from especially the employees at
at times results in all kinds of delays, misunderstanding and unrest among
sometimes blocked, and thus creates a lot of communication gaps, which
the lower levels of the organization to the superior and vice-versa is
Summary of Findings
The main findings of the study are summarized below:
A pilot study was conducted to remove ambiguities, inconsistencies and
(2)
for that purpose. The SPSS was used in analyzing the data. Descriptive statistics
inaccuracies in the questionnaire. The University of Education, Winneba was used
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memorandum, circulars, notices bulleting, student handbook, billboards
and annual reports.
The respondents conceded that there are a number of communication
channels employed by the university to disseminate information among
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(5)
the internal publics. These include d~wilward, upward, horizontal and
diag?nal channels, which are very popU1~ and have been effective to a
very large e}..1ent in the disseminati~n of information. The grapevine and
diagonal communication channels are not popular with the internal publics
of the university for the dissemination of information. This view is
supported by the fact that in both cases, less than half of the respondents
agreed to the fact that they employed these means in spreading
information.
Again, the study showed the respondents believed that information is
communicated among the internal publics mostly through media such as
notice boards, bulletins, electronic media, student's handbook,
memoranda, the Vice- Chancellors report, seminars and workshops. These
have been very efficient in the spread of information on the university
campus. It was however clear from the research' that billboards and
suggestion boxes are unpopular with the university in the spread of
information.
Furthermore, the respondents felt that semantic problems, poor listening
habits, mistrust, poor human relations, faulty communication equipment,
noise in the communication process and emotional state of both the
senders and receivers of information serve as major barriers to inforn1ation
flow.
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(6) Again, the respondents opined that beaura~ciacy and red-tapism within the
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com..-nunication process c:eate communication gaps among the various
classes of internal publics in the'university.
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Conclusions
Effective communication is very necessary if efficiency and productivity
are to be achieved in' every enterprise including education. This is because
"problems arise when directives are misunderstood, rumors spread, informal
remarks are misinterpreted or distorted, or when casual kidding in a work group
leads to anger" (Donnelly et aI, 1987 p. 416).Without effective communication
goals will not be achieved. It is in the light of this that the barriers to information
flow will have to be identified and proper measures implemented to reduce it.
An attempt has been made to evaluate the perception of the internal
publics of the University of Cape Coast on the general communication situation in
the institution with particular reference to the impediments that hinder the smooth
flow of information within the university community. According to the data,
discussions with respondents, and by analysis, it can be concluded that the various
internal publics interact with each other on regular basis. However,
communication among them is not as smooth as expected. This is due to the
numerous barriers that have hindered information flow within the university
community as identified in this study. These include: semantic problems, poor
human relations, noise in the communication process, poor listening habits,
bureaucracy and red-tapism.
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The research also reyealed that the V.C.C has various laid down channels
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of communication with fonnal ch~.J1els such downward and upward, horizontal
and diagonal communication and informal ones such as' grapevine communication
.Whereas the first three kinds of channel were very popular among the internal
publics of the institution; the publics proved to be quite unconversant with
diagonal and grapevine C..()mmunication.
It was also discovered that there are various media through which the
internal publics of the university interact with each other. Notable among them
are notice boards, bulletins, electronic media, memoranda, and Vice- Chancellor's
reports. Other media such as billboards and suggestion boxes were seen to be
unpopular in the spread of information on campus.
Recommendations will therefore be made, which if effectively
implemented, would at least minimize the barriers to information flow in the
institution.
Recommendations
In order for the findings of the study as outlined earlier to bring about the
necessary remedial measures to be effected, .the researcher suggests that the
following recommendations should be considered seriously by the university
authorities particularly the main administration, faculties departments, schools
and other units to ensure that communication amongst the internal publics IS
enhanced. The recommendations are:
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(1) All efforts should be made by the university authorities to encourage good
interpersonal communication among the intemal publics of the institution.
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(2)
The authorities should impress upon the Y<ll-~OUS faculties, dep:rrtments and
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units to hold regular staff meetings in ~rder to achieve excellent human
relations and thus good interpersonal communic3tion.
Eyery effort should be made to ensure that communication equipments
such as telephones, computers and accessories are regularly maintained to
reduce breakdow:l in information flow.
(3) Suggestion boxes must be pro\ided at the various faculties, departments,
units and other sections of the university to enhance information flow
\\ithin the university community. This \yould also impact positively on
upward communication channel (i.e. from subordinates to superiors).
(4) _All efforts must be geared towards reducing noise in the communication
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process in the university to the barest minimum. Bottlenecks such as
beauraucracy and red-tapism should be minimized as much as possible..
(5) Periodic seminars and workshops should be organized for the employees
of the university on important L,'Ues such as utilizing feedback and new
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connunication methods like the internet to help improve communication
\\ithin the system.
All the faculties, departments units and halls of residence of the university
must be provided \\ith modem functional inter-communication facilities,
to promote and enhance excellent internal communication \\ithin the
university.
The university authorities should ensure that the cost of importa...l1t
documents such as V.Co's report and Calendar are inculc3red in the
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students annual bill so as to keep them itlfonned on important occasions
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and issues of the university.
The faculty of student affairs must organize regular and well-planned fora
for students to give updates on pertinent issues in the university.
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146
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APPENDICES
Kindly give the necessary assistance that Mr. Samuel Yaw Ampofo, needs.
APPE.NDIX A
LETTER OF INTRODUCTION
Cape Coast, Ghana
April 28, 2004
University Post Office,
The bearer of this letter, Mr. Samuel Yaw Ampofo, is a graduate student of the
University of Cape Coast. He is collecting data/information in your outfit, for the
purpose ofwriting a thesis as a requirement ofthe programme.
I would be grateful if you could help him with the collection of the
data/information.
LEITER OF INTRODUCTION
Deans of Faculties, UCC
Heads of Departments, UCC
Administrative Staff, UCC
Student Leaders, UCC
DISTRIBUTION
Our Ref.: EP/90/2/47
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
INSTITUTION FOR EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION
TEL: 042-33824
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Thank you.
SGD.
C. S. Kpeglo (Ms)
Secretary
for Ag. Director
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APPENDIXB
~ It,
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
.
AND ADMINISTRATION
Questionnaire for Faculty Members, Administrative Staff and Students on
Issues in, Comniunication Flow in the University of Cape Coast
The purpose of this study is to gather information on communication flow in the
University of Cape Coast. This exercise is purely for an academic pursuit. Please
feel free to answer the questions as objectively and truthfully as you can. Your
response will be treated with utmost confidentiality.
Thank you.
Please respond to each item only once.
SECTION A: BASIC INFORMATION
Please indicate your response by placing a tick tY) in the appropriate box.
1. Gender
1.1 [ ] Male
1.2 [ ] Female
2. Highest Educational Qualification
2.1 [ ] PhD
2.2 [ ] M.ED, M.A, MPhil, MBA
2.3 [ ] PGCE,PGDE
2.4 [ ] B.ED, B.A, B.SC
2.5 [ ] Higher National Diploma (HND)
2.6 [ ] Diploma
2.7 [ ] GCE A'LEVELI SSCEI GCE O'LEVEL & BELOW
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3. Status ofrespondent in the University
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3.1 [] Senior Member [Teaching]
3.2 [] Senior Member [Non-Teaching]
3.3 [] Senior Administrative Staff
3.4 [] Junior Administrative Staff
3.5 [] Student
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SEcnONB: VIEWS ON COMMUNICAnON
,
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This section seeks to fmd out views on communication in the University of Cape
Coast. In your O\Vll opinion please indicate your response by placing a tick tV)
under one of the following:
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Strongly Agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
SA
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SA A U D SD
5 4 3 2 1
5. Communication IS
very vital to the effective
running ofthe university
6. Communication flow
IS very smooth in the
university
7. Communication is not
only relevant to the top
management ofthe university
I
149
by placing a tick (...J) under one of the following:
This section alms at considering the various channels of communication
commonly used in the University of Cape Coast. Please indicate your response
" U-SA A U D SD
5 4 3 2 1
8. Written communication -
is commonly used in
disseminating information in
the university
9 Verbal communication
is very commonly used in
informal communication
among the internal publics of
the university.
10. Non-verbal
communication is normally
used to reinforce oral
communication among the
internal publics of the
university
VIEWS ON CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATIONSECTIONC:
,
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Strong Agree -
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
SA
A
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SD
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Kindly indicate how often the underlisted media of communication is used to
disseminate information to the internal publics of the institution. Please tick (.y)
.,
The channel of communication commonly used at your department is .
SA A U D SD
i:..~
5 4 3 2 1
11. Downward communication
channel (from superior to subordinates)
12. Upward communication channel
(from subordinate to superior)
13. Horizontal commUnication channel
(from colleague to colleague)
14. Diagonal communication channel
(from superior in one department to
subordinate in another department)
15. Grapevine (rumours and gossips)
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATIONSECTIOND:
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the appropriate response from the following:
Very often
Often
Seldom
Never
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4" 3 2 1
16. Bulletin
17. Calendar
18. Student Handbook
19. Annual Report
20. Memoranda
21. Notice Boards
22. The Electronic Media
(Eg. FM Stations on campus)
23. Bill Boards
24. Suggestion Boxes
25. SeminarsfWorkshops
25. Apart from the listed media of communication, what are the other means by
which you obtain information in the university?
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
152
SECTIOX E: BARRIERS TO CO~~rr.:XICATIO?\ FLO\'.' D !H"E
. ,
UNIVERSITI'
The follo\\ing imp::diments OCcur and thus. serves as b:miers to information flow
among the internal publics of the Uniyersity of Cape Coast. Please tick (",I) the
appropriate response from the follo\\ing:
Strongly Agree SA
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
A
U
D
SD
i different conte:">."1)
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,
A I u D SD II
I I 2 15 4 3 II I Ii26. Differing perception (people I I I
I II !iobserve, analyse, and re2ct differently I ,
iI to an eyent). II!
(\bing words I I
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127. Semantic problems
,
meanin~, • II which haye scyeral ml I , !I I, I
128. Poor listening habits
I 29. ~ ll..'1nbL or lack of credibilityI
i 31. Poor human relations among
Iworkers
: 33. ?\oise (any factor that disturbs, I
i '!h th --- 0'''') I'! coill-"uses or interferes '\\1 e mc~o,.;:.=~
: 32. Emotional state (emonon.al.reaction II
: like anger. love, fear, etc mfluence
: - - I
i how we understand ~ch other) !
. 30. Faulty communication equipments
such as telephones, fax machines,
Icompmers, etc.
153
34. Have you noticed any problem with the ~comm~cation system III the
university7 Yes [ ] No [ ]
35. If your answer for question 52 is ~'Yes", what are some of the impediments
you have identified with the communication flow? State two
..........................................................................................
36. What has been the effect of those impediments?
........................................................................................
SECTION F: STRATEGIES THAT CAN BE EMPLOYED TO HELP
MINIMIZE THE IMPEDIMENTS TO COMMUNICATION FLOW IN
THE UNNERSITY
The underlisted strategies are employed in helping to minimize the impediments
to communication in the University of Cape Coast. Please show your response by
ticking C-J) one of the following:
Strongly Agree SA
Agree A
Uncertain U
Disagree D
SDStrongly disagree
SA A S D SD
5 4 3 2 1
37. Utilizing Feed back
38. Timely delivery of information
39. Clarity of information
40. Choice of media
41. The use of the internet
42. Frequent departmental meetingsI~
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43. Clearly defmed communication
.~ ~l:-
Channels.
44. Organising fora, especially
for students -
45. In your opinion, what other strategies apart from those mentioned can be
employed to improve communication flow in the university? State any two.
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APPENDIXC
Interview Guide for the Senior Assistant Registrar for Public Relations on
Issues in Communication Flow in the University of Cape Coast
1. What is your view on communication among the internal publics of the
university of Cape Coast?
2. Do you think communication is important to the university? In what sense
is it importlL.'1t?
3. What media are used in disseminating information to the internal publics
ofthe university?
4. How effective have these media been in the dissemination of information?
5. Are there any officially laid down channels of communication?
6. How effective have these channels been in the spread of information
among the internal publics ofthe institution?
7. What is your view on the statement that the grapevine exists as an
informal channel of communication?
8. As the Public relations officer of the institution, have you identified any
barriers to communication flow in the university of Cape Coast?
9. What are some ofthem?
10. In your opinion, what has been the effect of these barriers on the
operations of the university?
11. What strategies do you think can be adopted and implemented to at least
d
. 'nu'ze the impediments ifnot totally eradicate it?
re uce or mIll -
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APPENDIXD _
Interview Guide for the Senior Assistant Registrar for publications on Issues
in Communication Flow in- the University of Cape Coast
1. What is your view on communication among the internal publics of the
university of Cape Coast?
2. Do you think communication is important to the university? In what sense
is it important?
3. What media are used in disseminating information to the internal publics
of the university?
4. How effective have these media been in the dissemination of information?
5. Are there any officially laid down channels of communication?
6. How effective have these channels been in the spread of information
among the internal publics of the institution?
7. What is your view on the statement that the grapevine exists as an
informal channel of communication?
8. As the publications officer of the institution, have you identified any
barriers to communication flow in the university of Cape Coast?
9. What are some of them?
10. In your opinion, what has been the effect of these barriers on the
operations of the university?
11. What strategies do you think can be adopted and implemented to at least
reduce or minimize the impediments ifnot totally eradicate it?
157