UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE SUNYANI MUNICIPALITY CL/o\SS NO. - ACceSSION NO. ;2 0 I CAT. CHeCKfD F'NAi. I;HiCK \I I I BY RICHARDSON ADDAI A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE CENTRE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES. FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES. UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND POLICY JANUARY 2007 '," . THE LIBRARY~ UNIV~"SITY IF CA'E CO~!:T DECLARATION Candidate's Declaration I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own original research and that no part of it has been presented for another degree in this University or elsewhere. :J-91?f J/!rI < 10';J-Date: ~ .. SON ADDAI Supervisor's Declaration I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this dissertation were supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of thesis laid down by University of Cape Coast. .c ...~.~ Prof. S. B. Kendie \ .,.,Y~ v(fJ 7 Date: ~.~.~ . ABSTRACT Concerns have been raised in recent times concerning the. negative attitude of Ghanaians towards the environment. In spite of efforts being made to change behaviour, very little seems to have been achieved. All over the world, the most powerful tool, whi~h is used to surmount environmental problems is Environmental Education (EE). EE has been made part of the Senior Secondary School curriculum in Ghana. One would wonder the benefits of EE if environmental problems keep rising day by day. The research therefore, sought to examine the extent to which the content of Environmental Education in the Senior Secondary School syllabus is able to impart knowledge on environmental issues. To obtain useful data to help in achieving the objectives of the research, a Criterion Reference Test was conducted for final year students of four Senior Secondary Schools (SSS) in the Sunyani Municipality. Also a questiOlmaire was designed to elicit the views of teachers in the said schools on the topic. The Heads of the various schools used in the study were also interviewed. The study revealed interesting results notable among which is the fact that, students who come out of SSS on the whole cannot be said to be knowledgeable in environmental issues. Among the reasons accounting for this were that, teachers were not using hands-on approaches in teaching EE. Again, the content ofEE in the Social Studies Syllabus was also seen to be too small. To solve these problems that hinder the teaching and learning of EE, a number of recommendations have been made which, when implemented to the letter, would change the face of EE in our Senior Secondary Schools. 11 DEDlC,\nON I dedicate this work to my parents: Pastor & Mrs. Addni-MlIllllllklll11. 111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am highly indebted to Prof. S. B. Kendie for the precious time he spent giving guidance and directions. His painstaking effort has yielded this work and I am indeed grateful. My sincere thanks go to Theresa Patrine Enin (Lecturer - English Department, DCC) for her moral support which contributed in no small measure towards the successful completion of this work. To Mr. Eric Abbey and Isaac Amponsah (Shalom Publications), I say a big thank you for the typesetting and printing of this work. My siblings: Myrna, Astrid, and Fred Addai-Mununkum have been my source of inspiration and so I say "Ayekoo". The following people also contributed towards the success of this work - Dr. Yaw Afari Ankomah (IEPA - DCC), Mr. and Mrs. Blankson Nsiah, Mr. and Mrs. Benjamin Oduro Barnie and Mr. Emmanuel Owusu. I have certainly not forgotten Mr. E. Tenkorang (CDS - DCC) for his proofreading and guidelines. Finally to all my EMP course mates (2005 year group) and all environmentalists, I say a big "thank you" for reading this write-up. IV TABLE OF CONTENTS Content Declaration Abstract Dedication Acknowledgement Table of Content List of Tables List of Figures CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Statement of Problem Objectives Hypothesis Significance of the Study Scope of the Study CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW Definition of Environmental Education Importance of Environmental Education Environmental Education in the Classroom Music in Environmental Education Limitations to Environmental Education Environmental Concerns in Ghana v Page ii iii IV V viii IX 1 8 9 10 10 11 12 12 14 18 26 28 30 Introduction Background Variables Environmental Education in the School Curriculum Conceptual Framework CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 33 36 36Research Design Data Col1ection Techniques 36 Sampling Procedure 38 Research Instruments 39 Administration ofInstruments 40 Method of Data Analysis 43 CHAPTER 4: STUDENTS' ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE 44 Introduction 44 Background of Respondents 44 Description of Respondents by Place of Study 46 The Environmental Knowledge Test 47 Environmental Knowledge 50 Gender and Students' Environmental Knowledge 55 Programme of Study and Students' Environmental Knowledge 57 Schools and Students' Environmental Knowledge 61 Summary 63 CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 64 64 64 68 vi Methods of Teaching EE Use ofField Trips in Environmental Education Music in Environmental Education Use of School Gardens Use of Environmental Clubs Students' attitude to Environmental Education Summary CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Summary of Findings Recommendations and Policy Implications Conclusions Recommendations for Further Study References Appendix 'A': Criterion Referenced Test for Students Appendix 'B': Questionnaire for Teachers Appendix 'C': Guidelines for Interviews Appendix 'D': Guidelines for Structured Direct Observation vii 71 71 74 76 77 79 84 85 85 85 88 91 92 94 100 110 115 117 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1: Programme of Study and Sex of Respondents 45 2: Description of Respondents by Place of Study 46 3: Description of Environmental Knowledge Test Scores 50 4: Students' Performance classified under the subheadings 52 5: Gender and Students' Environmental Knowledge 55 6: Results of independent Samples Test 56 7: Classification of Students' Performance in EKT according to Programmes 58 8: Results of'F' Test 59 9: Results of One-Way ANOVA Test 62 10: Social Studies Topics and their groupings 66 11: Sex of Respondents and Number of Years taught 69 12: Years of Teaching and EE 70 13: Use of Environmental Clubs 78 14: Students' interest in Environmental Issues 80 15: Students' desire for more lessons on Environment 81 viii UST OF F1c;nn:s .. , . J: 1\ CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Environmentalists have too often advocated piecemeal approaches that cannot succeed in most ecological degradation settings. The U.S. EPA and World Resources Institute, for example, conducted a Delphi survey in 1992 asking experts to identify environmental trends, long-term problems, and suitable remedial measures. The joint report concluded that "the most powerful lever is education" and "improved education at all levels, has the greatest promise for the future of environmental quality and biodiversity. This includes providing people with a direct sense of connection between their everyday lives and environmental quality" (Ecovitality 2004 pI). Environment is a common word used differently depending on the meaning the user wants to give. Park (1989) defined it as the sum total of the biological, chemical and physical status and character of the biosphere; and that it embraces both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) features along with processes, cycles and interrelationships, which influence these. According to Encarta Encyclopedia (2004), it refers to the thin layer of life and life-supports called the biosphere, including the Earth's air, soil, water, and living organisms. In this write-up, the term environment is used as the immediate social and physical surroundings, which consists of both living and non-living things. Richard and Robert (1985) writing on Functionalism in Human Ecology reports Riley Dunlap as having identified three basic functions the environment performs for humans. These are: providing resources essential for life such as air and water; serving as waste repository; and housing human specie. In the words of the UNESCO (1978), the natural environment performs for us, free of charge, basic services without which our species could not" survive. The ozone layer screens out ultraviolet rays from the sun that harm people, animals and plants. Ecosystems help purify the air we breathe and the water we drink. They convert wastes into resources and reduce atmospheric carbon levels that would otherwise contribute to global warming. Biodiversity provides a bountiful store of medicines and food products, and it maintains genetic variety that reduces vulnerability to pests and diseases. But we are degrading, and in some cases destroying, the ability of the environment to continue providing these life-sustaining services for us. To ensure that the environment continues to provide these services, there is the need for a good relationship between humans and the environment. Humans have viewed the environment as a free gift of nature and as such do not care about its sustainability. Humans have a free access to the environment and like every free gift its usage is without any care. Since it is free for everybody, no one monitors its use. Virtually everybody does what he likes with or to the environment. Poor farming practices like the slash ami bum method , mining, fishing, industrial activities among others, have been identified to have 2 resulted in the depletion of environmental resources and heavy dumps of wastes, which are not being recycled. The environment has become an issue of global concern as environmental problems become more apparent and grow wider in scope. The consequences of environmental problems are experienced by all around the globe, especially by those living in developing regions where there has been a chain of disasters, one after the other, as in Africa. To correct this situation, calls have been made at international conferences to encourage humans to have a positive attitude towards the environment. Notable among these conferences are the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment - Stockholm 1972, Montreal protocol of 1987 on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and the Earth Summit in Rio D'Jinero in 1992. The latest of such conferences has been the Johannesburg Summit of 2002 which others refer to as Rio + 10. Among other things, these conferences and summits emphasized the need for sensitization of humans on environmental issues. This is evident in the statement ofUEM(2004) which states among other things that, implementation of every environmental policy, programme, project and plan comes down to the same common denominator - environmental education (EE). Emily (2004) had it right in stating that given the importance of global issues reinforced at conferences such as Rio and Johannesburg, it is necessary that action be taken through environmental education. Perpetuating the outcomes of the Johannesburg Summit will require education not only about water, energy, 3 health, agriculture, and biodiversity but also sustainable production and consumption. This will advance an additional resolve of the' Johannesberg Summit to adopt a decade of education for sustainable development, starting in 2005. Environmental Education (EE) has been defined and redefined over the last twenty-five years. Definitional issues are inherent in a field which is broad and encompassing as this. It is generally agreed that environmental education is a process that creates awareness and understanding of the relationship between humans and their many environments-natural, man-made, cultural, and technological. Environmental education is concerned with knowledge, values, and attitudes, and has as its aim responsible environmental behaviour. The most commonly accepted definition worldwide was developed in 1975 at a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) meeting in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. This definition and its guiding principles were accepted by the twelve federal agencies that participated in a 1993 interagency review of the federal environmental education programmes. A report of this interagency group states that environmental education should increase public awareness and knowledge about environmental issues as well as provide the public with the skills necessary to make informed decisions and the motivation to take responsible actions (Engleson & Dennis, 1994). This is not different from the UNESCO Tbilisi Declaration of 1978, which among other things defined Environmental Education as a learning process that increases people's knowledge and awareness about the environment and 4 - () '_' (0 associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action (EPA, 2004). EE, therefore, is about understanding the causes and effects, of positive and negative aspects, of global and local issues, of immediate and long-term issues, and of direct and indirect impacts (UEM, 2004). Environmental Education as a learning process, therefore, aims at increasing knowledge and awareness about the environment and developing skills that enable responsible decisions and actions that impact on the environment. The view that "human behaviour is best shaped when young" has caught up with many countries world over. This is why most countries have found the need to incorporate environmental education in the school system. The aim is to make sure that, students produced are made aware and conscious of the environment so that they can promote good relationship with the environment by their adoption of good environmental practices. This is evident in the objectives of EE programme in Mali dubbed Training and Information Programme on the Environment (TIPE), which are: ...to instill in young people-and through them the entire population- attitudes, values, abilities, and skills, as well as an active and aware participatory behaviour necessary for a rational management of the fragile resources of the Sahel, and in particular for finding solutions to the problems of drought and desertification (USAID, 2000 p6). 5 '. f'1~ In Norway, environmental education In schools started as a separate course of study. Later, it found a home within the sciences and finally was taken up by the Science, Social Studies and Religious Education departments. France maintains that, no new department should be created. Instead, a curriculum development project was instituted in 145 schools, which aimed at incorporating environmental education into the mainstream school curriculum (NAEE, 1973). Zambia is home to one of the world's oldest environmental education programs for young children, the Changalala Clubs. These emerged in the early 1970s as part of a public education effort by the National Parks Department to counter local resistance to the creation of protected areas. Since the inception of the Chongololo Clubs, they have enjoyed support from the nonprofit Wildlife and Environmental Conservation Society of Zambia (WECSZ) and grassroots volunteer efforts. They initially targeted children in the upper elementary grades. The clubs expanded to secondary schools in the 1980s and some clubs also target younger children. The Chongololo Clubs are a unique example of an EE program that has developed a national profile and has stood the test of time. Efforts have been made in Mali, which is two thirds covered by desert, to introduce environmental education in the public schools. This is part of a 10-year programme in nine Sahelian countries. In the early 1990s,· the Inter-State Committee for the Fight Against Drought in the Sahel (CILSS) launched the Training and Information Programme on the Environment (TIPE) with funding from the European Union. TIPE provides a basic curriculum and training 6 programme for public elementary ~chools in the member countries. About 320 schools are now involved. Emphasis is on awareness of the problems of desertification and critical drought prevention behaviours. One of the programme's stated goal is to improve practices within the community as well as within the school (USAID, 2000). Environmental Education in schools gained roots in Ghana during the educational reforms of 1987. Environmental Studies was combined with Agricultural Studies to form a core subject in the Senior Secondary School curriculum. The subject dubbed Agric and Environmental Studies aimed at making people aware of the ongoing environmental degradation so that they can take action to stop and reverse it. (Awuku et al 1993). From this it is clear that, the purpose of the introduction of this course of study was to increase students' environmental knowledge in order to inculcate in them the culture of managing environmental resources prudently and working to reverse trends that contribute to environmental degradation. In 1995 however, there were cries for a reduction in the number of subjects being studied in Senior Secondary Schools. Unfortunately, Agriculture and Environmental Studies was seen as a "less relevant" subject and hence was removed. To make up for a study of the environment, a new subject, Social Studies was introduced. This subject is to make up for all topics that are not dealt with in the other subjects. Schools are also encouraged to make good environmental practices part of the co-curricular activities in a bid to conscientize the youth to be environmentalIy conscious. 7 Statement of the Problem Environmental Education (EE) may be fonnal and informaL Fonnal EE is where it is incorporated in the school syllabi whereas informal EE is what takes place during co-curricular activities. It is in view of this that the Ghana Education Service (GES) encourages that both the fonnal and infonnal forms of Environmental Education are carried out in schools to make students environmentally conscious. Consequently, a teacher who wins the best teacher award should be seen to have promoted good environmental practices in his school. A visit to Senior Secondary Schools reveals that, in spite of the EE being carried out, the level of environmental consciousness is still too low. Second Cycle students do not show signs of concern for the environment. Students are forced before they help to keep school surroundings clean. An example is when the Minister of Education, Youth and Sports paid an unannounced visit to some schools and saw that, most schools were not being kept clean (Sam, 2004). When students move out of their campuses, they join the numerous Ghanaians who litter the streets with wastes. In spite of the EE, students would not in any way attempt to educate their families on good environmental practices. One would wonder the benefit of Environmental Education if there seem to be no sign of its positive effect on the Society. Nonnally, it is expected that, students who undergo EE in schools should be very much conscious of the·environment so that tlley could in tum serve as a catalyst to influence their peers and other family members positively. This ideal situation is not the case in most communities in Ghana and to be specific, Sunyani. Some have blamed the problem on the society 8 Objectives whereas others think the schools ought to do more in stimulating environmental consciousness. In the midst of these arguments, the need to examine the problem on a systematic basis becomes clear. There is the need to ascertain whether the students' lack of concern for the environment is due to a lack of sufficient environmental knowledge; hence the study. (/ The study is aimed at examining the extent to which the ,iontent of EE in SSS syllabus is able to impart knowledge in environmental issues. The specific objectives were to: • Assess the level of inclusion ofEE in the Social Studies syllabus. • Examine the practical dimensions of EE lessons in Senior Secondary Schools. • • • • Examine the perception of teachers on students' attitude to EE. Test the environmental knowledge of SSS Three students. Analyse environmental knowledge of male and female Senior Secondary students. Examine the contribution of the programme of study and the school of study on students' environmental knowledge. The study is aimed at answering the following research questions. 9 "• • • • What percentage of the Social Studies Syllabus is devoted to EE and how adequate is this in instilling environmental knowledge and awareness towards attitudinal change? How practical are EE lessons? Do students attach any seriousness to the study of topics on the Environment? Do students demonstrate mastery of the content of EE after the programmes of study? Hypothesis • There is no significant difference III the environmental knowledge of females and males. • Programme of Study does not significantly influence students' environmental knowledge. • Students' environmental knowledge is not influenced by place of study. I . Significance of the Study With the recent concerns of policy makers on the environment and the call for EE, a study into Environmental Education would be very much beneficial. The study would inform policy makers on the effectiveness or otherwise of Environmental Education so that support could be given or modifications made for it to yield the expected fruits. 10 In a similar vein, Agencies and NGOs concerned about the environment would be informed of the effectiveness of EE so as to be able to make informed choices in the programmes they run to sensitize people on the environment. To the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Service, the study would be very much beneficial in that, it would present a feedback as to the effectiveness or otherwise of EE in Secondary Schools. They would be informed after the study whether the aims for introducing or not introducing EE are being achieved. The recommendations given would go a long way to stimulate and influence future curriculum reforms in our school set-up. Finally, the study would form the baseline for further studies that may be conducted on Environmental Education either in other districts, regions or countries. 11 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Definition of Environmental Education A continuing dilemma for those concerned with environmental education lies in the matter of definition. There are some who strive to achieve universal agreement as to a precise meaning and discreet set of descriptive parameters, but there are others who prefer not to expend energy on what they perceive as an inherently non-productive exercise. There also exists a third population, a potpourri of groups and individuals who have independently or semi- autonomously forwarded a variety of definitions and descriptive statements, on occasion demonstrating strong overlap and, on occasion, equally virulent disagreement (EETAP, 1997). For the purpose of our discussion, we would look at some of these definitions. Environmental education is a learning process that increases people's knowledge and awareness about the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action (UNESCO, 1978 pI). Environmental education should increase public awareness and knowledge about environmental issues as well as provide the public with the skills 12 necessary to make infonned decisions and the motivation to take responsible actions (Engleson & Dennis, 1994). The Wisconsin Environmental Education Board (WEEB) defines environmental education as a lifelong learning process that leads to an infonned and involved citizenry having the creative problem-solving skills, scientific and social literacy, ethical awareness and sensitivity for the relationship between humans and the environment, and commitment to engage in responsible individual and cooperative actions. By these actions, environmentally literate citizens will help ensure an ecologically and economically sustainable environment (WDPI, 1998). EE, therefore, is about understanding the causes and effects, of positive and negative aspects, of global and local issues, of immediate and long-tenn issues, and of direct and indirect impacts (DEM, 2004). A look at these definitions indicates a line of affinity between them. We would thus not be wrong in accepting the components of EE as stated by UNESCO as: • Awareness and sensitivity to the environment and environmental challenges. • • • Knowledge and understanding of the environment and environmental challenges. Attitudes of concern for the environment and motivation to improve or maintain environmental quality. Skills to identifY and help resolve environmental challenges. 13 • Participation in activities that lead to the resolution of environmental challenges (UNESCO. 1978). Importance of Environmental Education All members of society depend on natural resources to survive. In view of the fact that the availability of these resources has limits, it is essential, therefore, that the public understand the importance of the environment to their quality of life and that they have the knowledge. tools. and ethic to live in ways that minimize the impact of their actions on the environment. In a more general sense, this is what Environmental Education does. There can be a thousand and one specific benefits of Environmental Education but for what space and time would allow. a few are discussed in the ensuing paragraphs. Protecting Hllman Health The link hctween environmental challenges and human health is a major cause of public concern about the environment. Lead poisoning from paint and pipes. air pollution. pesticides in water and food supplies. increased threats of skin cancer from depletion of the ozone layer. and other environmental and health issues are of growing concern to humans. especially effects on children and future generations. Environmental education can help prevent or mitigate environmental human health problems by providing the public with information on the causes of environmental pollution. how pollutants may affect health. how to assess real versus exaggerated risks. and how to make informed and responsible decisions that prevent or mitigate the effects of pollution on health (EPA. 1999). 14 Advancing Quality Education Many educational scholars and practitioners agree that students are not doing well at thinking. reasoning, analyzing. or problem-solving. Many goals of education reform emphasize the need to strengthen core subjects such as Mathematics and Science: teach across subject areas: improve critical-thinking and problem-solving skills: and relate learning in the classroom to the needs and issues of the community. Environmental education has a tremendous potential to contribute to these goals of education reform. For example. it can strengthen teaching in many core subjects, especially Integrated Science, because science is the basis for solving many of our environmental challenges. At the same time, environmental education can promote interdisciplinary teaching because environmental topics can be addressed from many different perspectives. including scientific. historical. and cultural (EPA. 1999). Michele (1999) supports this by stating that. EE programmes can be used to teach a variety of concepts and skills within disciplines. And, because environmental education is at its heart an integrative undertaking, it can help educators and learners cross disciplinary boundaries. Understanding environmental connections require that students are able to link methods and ideas from natural and social sciences, arts. mathematics, and humanities. Learning about the environment and environmental issues is a continuing lesson in interconnectedness that draws upon the core disciplines and provides a meaningful context. 15 Creating Jobs in the Environmental Field Protecting the environment creates new jobs for humans. Employment opportunities in the environmental field cover the spectrum of careers from manual labour to high technology and management. For example. there is an increasing demand for individuals with specialized scientific and technical skills to develop more effective pollution prevention and control technologies in areas such as air pollution control, environmental energy sources, hazardous waste management. resource recovery. and instrument manufacturing. Environmental education and training can help ensure an adequate supply of well-trained environmental personnel to deal with the nation's increasingly complex environmental challenges. Environmental education's emphasis on critical thinking and problem- solving skills equip learners in dealing with rapidly changing technologies in the workplace (EPA. 1999). Promoting Environmental Protection along with Economic Development Our future depends on the ability to use the Earth's resources sustainably. The United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development defines sustainable development as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own n~eds (WCED. 1987). Sustainable development poses two fundamental education challenges. One is to promote informed decisions that are conducive to sustainability. The 16 other is to teach the benefits of integrating conservation with the need for economic development. Environmental education contributes to sustainable development efforts by demonstrating ways to promote informed decision-making and teach the benefits oflinking conservation and economic development. Environmental education research has identified key strategies for developing education programmes that lead to responsible decision-making, and practitioners have developed programme models for incorporating a range of perspectives into the resolution of issues. These educational tools and strategies can be applied to efforts to ensure sustainablc development (EPA. 1999). In the words of Rauch (2000). EE within the school can have an appreciably positive effect on students with attention and behaviour problems, or who have a lack of desire to act in an environmentally responsible way. For example, changes in behaviour have been reported to include less vandalism, increased waste separation. and implementation of energy conservation strategies. Encouraging Stewardship ofNatural Resources Interest in protecting the World's natural resources. including species and their habitats. arises from the respect that people hold for our nation's past and belief in its future. This interest also stems from a strong desire to protect and enjoy nature and to pass it on to our children. There is a need to increase understanding that the health of individual species can be strong indi.:ators of the health of the entire environment and that biological diversity has ecological and economic importance. Environmental education enhances the public's 17 understanding of the need for healthy plant and animal life and biodiversity; it also educates the public about how their actions affect natural ecosystems and how positive steps can be taken to minimize impacts on these ecosystems and how it will translate into improvements in our overall environment (EPA, 1999). Environmental Education in the Classroom Teaching about the natural and built environment provides a real-world context for learning by linking the classroom to the students' community. Students are engaged in hands-on, active learning that increases their knowledge and awareness about the environment. Because environmental education encourages inquiry and investigation, students develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and effective decision- making skills. Environmentally literate students become citizens who are able to weigh various sides of an environmental issue and make responsible decisions as individuals and as members of their community (EPA, 2003). From the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, the recommendation was made that every nation promotes and develops environmental education (EE) programmes (Engleson and Yockers, 1994). Since that time, many programmes have been implemented within schools worldwide. But how exactly is environmental education being done in the schools? What approaches and techniques are being used to bring environmental education to the students? The following will provide information on how EE is being done by 18 looking at methods. and by investigating into more specific techniques for environmental learning. Incorporation of EE into thc School Curriculum Udo (1997) has said that the contribution of the school to environmental education can only be improved if leading environmental issues are incorporated in certain subjects and thus integrated in the curricula, if - together with the teachers - teaching materials are developed which make it possible to translate conceptual notions into practical instructions for action. and if teachers are accordingly trained and guided. Consequently. in the 1990s. 111 many African countries. environmental subjects were incorporated in "Science" or agricultural instruction. or the former subject "Science" was turned into Environmental Education. Environmental Scicnce or Environmental Studies. In support of the incorporation of EE into thc school curriculum. the Environmental Education Training and Partnership (EETAP) has identified four broad approaches to incorporating environmental education into schools. and morc spccifically. thc curriculum. Thesc include infusion. imposition. insertion. and framing. IlIfllsi() II Infusion is the incorporation of environmental concepts. activities. and examples into existing curricular goals. An cxample of infusion can be seen in a 19 tenth grade Chemistry class in California (Monroe and Cappaert, 1994). The teacher had students investigate into current environmental issues such as a proposal to control hydrocarbon emissions and their effect on cars. dry cleaning. gas pumps, and other sources of smog. By infusing these environmental issues and concepts into his class. the teacher was able to help students understand processes such as oxidation and ionization. and also help them to see the connection between high school chemistry and Los Angeles air (EETAP 2004). Imposition Imposition refers to making environmental topics requirements within the curriculum. An example of this may be seen when a school district requires that the science classes within the districts' public schools include topics such as endangered species, water quality. and forest health within the curriculum. Insertion Insertion is the addition of an environmental unit or course to the class or curriculum (Monroe & Cappaert. 1994). In this case. something else is sometimes removed from the curriculum to make room for the EE unit. In Calvert County, Maryland. some middle school home-arts teachers developed a two-week-unit focusing on water conservation. Components of the unit included showing a film called "Down the Drain." reading "The Story of Drinking Water." and facilitating several different activities (Monroe & Cappaert, 1994). 20 Framing Framing refers to eliminating the subjective boundaries of traditional disciplines and instead. creating a structure of study that integrates subject areas (Heimlich. 1992). In northern Wisconsin. a third-grade tcacher uscd this approach when she decided to use loons as a unifying theme throughout her classes. Population numbers and graphs were incorporated into Mathematics. [n geography. students put pins (on a map) on Wisconsin lakes that loons inhabit and measured their distance to nearby roads and towns. [n language arts. students were asked to read articles about loons and write poems about a day in the life of a loon (Monroe & Cappaert. 1994). Other Ways of Transmitting EE in Schools A review of some existing environmental education programmes illustrates that beyond these general approaches. there are several specific techniques used to increase environmental education in schools. The Use ofSenses One EE technique being used in schools is increasing learners' awareness of the environment by having them use their various senses. This is an especially effective technique with pre-school through grade two level students. Teachers who have used this technique remarked that important features include: a comfortable classroom environment. experience in the natural environment, 2\ rplayfulness. imagination. storytelling. crafting with natural materials, breathing and voice exercises. and relating to water (Adedayo et al 1997). Tile Use ofScllool Sites Another technique IS USIng the school site or building as a place for ecological learning. Using the school for projects where students investigate, for example. energy issues. recycling. waste. and procurement, gives students hands- on experience dealing with real-world issues. Students are able to gain important exposure to the investigation and resolution of environmental problems, while improving their skills in working with a team. as well as individually (EETAP, 2004). In a recent article in the Early Childhood Education Journal. Rivkin (1997) outlined the schoolyard habitat movement and its imp0l1ance to environmental education She noted that many older Americans still remember outdoor playas a treasured part of their early experiences. This is because to her, children are multi- sensory, physical beings and benefit physically, cognitively, and emotionally from interplay with wind and water. sights and sounds. plants and animals. running and shouting. Sclloo~l'ard Garden Schoolyard gardens are another hands-on approach to EE within schools. This out-of doors technique has become increasingly popular for many reasons, including its ability to give many students their first experience with nature. the 22 ability to beautify a school grounds, and the potential for it to be easily integrated as an EE component into each of a teacher's subjects. especially at the primary level ("Schoolyard Habitats...", 1996). The tecimiquc of giving the students increased control over and experience in the shaping of the project has been shown to reduce aggressive and destructive behaviours in children. "Teachers of a Vienna (Austria) inner-city school reported that children, who were inattentive otherwise, participated with a lot of fervor and perseverance.. .in planting a garden....· (Rauch. 2000 p245). This technique can be incorporated into all grade levels to varying degrees. An example of a success in this approach has been that of Mrs. Bowman who practiced this method in Waynewood Elementary in Alexandria, Virginia. Every subject that Mrs. Bowman needed to cover in her curriculum was integrated into the school garden project at Waynewood. In the end, Mrs. Bowman's students were not only able to proudly share the garden bounty with the other students and staff of the school; they were also able to communicate the particulars of each fruit or vegetable being eaten and the environmental factors associated with them (Miller. 1999). Relating EE to Culture Focusing on local environmental issues and relating their connection to the respective culture is another technique of how EE is being used ill schools. In Ethiopia. there are efforts underway to integrate pressing environmental problems 7~ -.' such as the impact of population growth and environmental degradation on the biological diversity of the area into the university curriculum (UNESCO, 1995). Century (1988) and Little (1997) support this by stating that, when teaching students from diverse cultures. it is vital to understand students' cultures and history in order to give each child a worthwhile educational experience. It is also important not to stereotype. generalize. or hold cel1ain expectations based on a student's ethnicity. Citing an example, Kober (1993) opines that some cultures such as Native American are extremely sensitive to animal remains and may have a difficult time or be upset by viewing or dissecting dead animals. Commullit)' Based Educatioll il1ode! Another example of using local environmental issues as a focal point can be seen through the Community-Based Education Model (CBEM) at Santa Fe Indian School in New Mexico. Within the CBEM. Pueblo high school students focus on the Pueblo community through local field experience programmes on water quality and interaction with Pueblo community members and culhlre. A strength of the programme has been an increased level of student motivation to learn about environmental science (Enos. 1999). Elll'irolllllelltal Clubs Establishing school environmental conservation clubs is a technique being used in many schools, beginning at the middle elementary le\ el and continuing on at all higher levels (EETAP, 2004). Students, staff. or faculty members may 24 rinitiate school conservation clubs. Some of their goals are to increase student awareness and involvement in environmental issues. Activities that they may be involved in include: establishing or improving a recycling programme on the school grounds. conducting environmental education for younger grades, planning a local student environmental awareness action conference, fund-raising for environmental causes, participating in river/highway cleanups, and organizing guest lecturers to visit the school to discuss environmental issues. Field Experience Field experience is another EE technique being used in schools (EETAP, 2004). It is important because it provides students with experience beyond the traditional indoor school setting. Exposure to the outdoors can be an extremely effective method for increasing the level of student environmental awareness and knowledge, and for fostering or strengthening a desire to protect the environment. Examples of field experience include: field trips to nature centers, wildlife refuges, arboretums, and more; supporting components to the existing curriculum, such as taking a class outside to identify various vegetative species, or having a class investigate the impacts of erosion on a local stream or river and design and implement a strategy to stop or decrease the amount of erosion; and more. All grade levels can incorporate field experiences into their EE programmes. However. challenging logistics, such as money. transportation. alld parental consent can sometimes prevent an extensive amount of field experience for students. 25 Technology Technology is a tool used in many EE programmes within schools, and can be used to help combat limitations that traditional field experience may pose. One example is a multimedia programme called Science Vision. "Eco Ventures" is an element of this programme (Dawson. 1998). Its focus is on the increasing pressure on environmental resources in Florida. due in large part to the growing population. In "Eco Ventures". a fictional state park is created and lower secondary students (for which the programme is il}tended) pretend to be interns working with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection to develop a management plan for the new park. Thus, the students are able to gain some valuable experience investigating and trying to resolve real environmental issues. The use of technology in EE can be effective for middle elementary through higher learning levels. Music in Environmental Education Another useful way of educating people on the environment is by Music. According to Doug (2002). music can be a powerful tool to educators who are teaching young people about the breakdown between environmental conservation and human eonsumption. as well as the hUlllan and cOlllmunity crises that are created as a result of such breakdowns. He argues that music can be used to gcnerate studcnt intcrest in a topic that they may have otherwise disregarded. Citing the work of Rogers ( 1977). Ramsey states that. Rogers wrote songs about rural life aeross Canada. Whether it was gram farminl.( in Saskatehewan , 26 ("The Field Behind the Plow"), the migration of Atlantic Canadians to the western oil industry ("The Idiot"), or songs of the fishery ("Make and Break Harbour"). Rogers left behind rich resource documents from which educators can draw. "Make and Break Harbour" (Rogers, 1977 p15) refers to a time when the cod were still "plenty," but the arri"al of large-scale off shore fishing trawlers meant fewer fish and fewer people. In the first verse, the lines, "... Once more we tack home \\ith a dry empty hold" and "... make and break, and make do, but the fish are so few" speak to changes in the fishery with small-scale inshore fishers returning home almost empty handed. This description leads into an explanation of why this occurred. The answer, according to Rogers, is to lay particular blame on the industrialized, large-scale offshore fishery of the post World War II era. Ramsey stated further that, the stories that are told, and the emotion that is in"oked in such songs, make them powerful tools in the classroom, particularly as introductions and conclusions to a unit on the Atlantic fishery or as a technique for fostering class discussion or facilitate a resource debate. The unit itself could be framed upon any number of general textbooks as well as further reading in a range ofregional, sociological, and en"ironmental journals. To support this fact, Millitch (1999:625) comments on a stand oflvlargaret Mead who opined that folksong could sa"e the world. He stated that, "it's my opinion that rvlead knows what she is talking about. Music can influence "alues. 27 And since society's central problem in terms of environmental matters arises from values. music can have a profound influence .. :' Limitations to Environmental Education Impediments in the Classroom The good intentions of the curriculum experts who. since the 1980s. have seen to it that envirOlID1entai issues are integrated in the learning content of schools. have not always been implemented meaningfully in daily classroom instruction. The reasons for this are certainly to be found in the poor equipment of the schools. the large classes. the lack of teaching aids. and - not least - the inadequate training and remuneration of the teachers (Udo 1997). POl'erty Education can seldom change self-interested choices in circumstances where people can obtain higher incomes through ecologically destructive activities than by conserving natural features. As one illustration. a recent article in The Undersea Journal decries the widespread practice of dynamite fishing. which is illegal in virtually all coastal states. and then quoted an Indonesian official conceding: 'The people who obey the law live in glass houses. The people who don't. for now. live in concrete ones. It's a difficult argument." Fishern1en can easily see the circle of devastation resulting from their use of explosives. but they can also catch more fish by using bombs than by adopting other low-technology fishing methods. Many governments and environmental groups have mounted 28 groups have mounted educational campaigns to describe the long-term harm resulting from this method. but the practice continues in many regions. Consequently. an attempt in 1988 by marine scientists from Trent University in Jamaica and the Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory of the University of the West Indies to educate fishermen on the harmful ecological impacts of the use of small nets failed. The scientists concl uded by 1991 that education was insufficient because the fishermen were reluctant to suffer the initial burden of reduced catches. Selfish Attitudes In the same vein. education can seldom overcome selfish or uncooperative behaviour arising from perceived self-interest. or sheer stubbornness. Education can seldom resolve "Tragedy of the Commons" problems in which communal ownership allows people to benefit from other's conservation efforts by taking a disproportionate share of the natural resources for themselves. Education can seldom remedy problems in which the continuation of environmentally harmful actions by some people will undermine conservation preferences by the majority. In all of these cases. environmental education may not be a necessary element in devising any practicable solution. but education cannot be a sufficient solution by itself. Combining environmental education with economic assistance or economic incentive mechanisms is likely to prove more effective than exclusive reliance on education programmes (Ecovitality, 2004). 29 Traditiollal Beliefs The success of Environmental Education is often impeded by the cherished traditions of a group of people. Ecovitality (2004) reports that in Jamaica. hurricanes in the early 1980's badly damaged north-shore reefs and reduced fish abundance while the human fishing population increased; thus. there were more fishermen trying to catch fewer fish. The most common fishing gear is small-mesh traps that capture juveniles before they have a chance to mature into larger and more valuable fish. One marine scientist working in Jamaica noted and '\'Tote: "It is a common belief that fishing pressure cannot affect the abundance of fish ('Fish can't done!'): that it is sacrilegious to presume otherwise ('If fish in my trap. is God put it there'): and that other factors are responsible for the decline in catches." Environmental Concerns in Ghana A review of environmental reportage in Ghana's major dailies over the first three months of 2004 revealed that 94 articles on the environment were published in the Ghanaian Times, Daily Graphic and the Mirror. Out of this number. 30% focused on educating the public about some activities that adversely affect the environment and steps that would be taken to avert the negative impact. About 44% was concerned about sanitation. 13 articles (13.8%) were on water pollution. The rest (12 articles) were on noise and air pollution. conservation and preservation of our forest and the destruction of the biodiversity (Nii-Okpe 2004). 30 In the January 16 2004 edition of the Daily Graphic, journalists and editors were advised to place much more premium on stories and features of the environment and poverty related subjects The editor of the Daily Graphic Mr Yaw Boadu Aye Boafo advised journalists and editors to lead a crusade for better, wise and prudent use of resources and practices for sustainable development. The UN commissioner on sustainable development (who is also the Norwegian minister of environment) was at a function where he lamented at the wanton destruction and loss of biodiversity, which posed a greater danger to the continuous existence of human beings on earth. As part of activities marking environment day, students from two (2) Basic schools were sensitized by the Brong-Ahafo Regional Environmental Protection Agency office to plant trees in their compounds. The theme for the environmental week celebration was "Greening the Region; everybody's responsibility". By this act, the EPA hoped to sensitize adolescents on the need to protect and conserve environmental resources by rejuvenating our forest resources (Lokko, 2004). At the launching of the 30th anniversary of the Environmental Protection Agency the Vice President Alhaji Aliu Mahama advised Ghanaians to undertake a crusade to protect the environment; he said that as the nation strives to reduce the level of poverty, dependence on the environment would increase so EPA should give guidance and directions to safeguard a sustainable development. If most of the needs are derived from natural resources, they should monitor and implement preventive and control measures and propose necessary measures to government. 31 Osagyefo Amoatia Ofori Panin (Omanhene of Akyem) also noted that humans had damaged the environment with careless abandonment in their quest to satisfy their needs. He urged Ghanaians to invest in the environment by treating it with care so that people would have healthy lives as well as ensure that posterity benefited from it. He recommended that poverty reduction in the environmental enhancement programmes should be integrated into all development projects (Donkor, 2004). In the 1i h February 2004 edition of the Ghanaian Times, Walter C. Lowdermilk published a paper with a heading "The Eleventh Commandment". He stated among other things that, the Decalogue in the Bible needs an extension to include an eleventh commandment, which he identifies to be: Thou shal1 inherit the holy earth as a faithful steward, conserving its resources and productivity from generation to generation. Thou shall safeguard the fields from soil erosion, the living waters from drying up, thy hil1s from overgrazing by the herds. Thy descendants may have abundant forever. If any shal1 fail in this stewardship of the land, thy fruitful fields shall become sterile, stony ground and wasting gul1ies and thy descendants shall decrease and live in poverty or perish on the earth. 32 Conceptual Framework Environmental Problems Causes: P verty Tradit onal Affluence Beliefs Source: Author's Construct Figure: 1 Surmounting Environmental Problems with EE Key to the Stages in EE Stages in Environmental Education Stage 1: Awareness creation through infusion. insertion. imposition and framing of EE topics in the curriculum Stage 2: Knowledge and Understanding of Environmental issues through the use of School sites. field experience and Community Based Education Model. Stage 3: Participation 111 activities that lead to the solution of environmental challenges such as clubs. schoolyard gardening etc. Stage 4: Attitudes of Concern for the environment. Stage 5: Ideal Environment What has been created to be the conceptual framework for the study is the diagram shown in Figure I and captioned "Surmounting Environmental Problems". Its development has been influenced by UNESCO's(l978) components of EE discussed in the previous pages. Environmental Problems which are caused by Poverty, Affluence, and Traditional Beliefs are seen to have heaped up posing a big challenge for humans. This heap of problems could only be overcome by going through the stages of Environmental Education. The first stage is where an attempt is made to create awareness of the harm that we cause the environment. This could be done through infusion, insertion, imposition and framing ofEE topics in the curriculum. The Second Stage is where having created awareness, students are motivated to seek knowledge and understanding of the real issues involved in the environment. This could be done through the use of school sites and field expenence. Having gained knowledge and understanding, it is expected that, EE is taken to the third stage where Students participate in activities that lead to the solution of environmental problems. This could be realised through formation of clubs and schoolyard gardening among others. The fourth stage is the stage where students get the intrinsic motivation to be concerned about the environment. A situation where people cannot help but to react in situations where others are seen to be abusing the environment. 34 When all these are implemented to the letter, it is expected that, our environment would become a "Paradise" which is used to mean an ideal situation where things are perfect. 35 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Research Design The research is on Environmental Education in Secondary Schools in the Sunyani Municipality. The research design for the study was a descriptive survey. Gay, (1987) sees the descriptive survey as the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or answer questions concerning the status of the study. The researcher explored into both primary and secondary sources of information pertaining to Environmental Education. It was non-interventional, as no measure was put in place in the course of the study. Data Collection Techniques Secondary Sources Secondary data that was useful in this study consisted of existing information, record of governmental institutions as well as Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) that are concerned with sensitizing the youth on environmental issues thereby stimulating their environmental consciousness. To obtain this data, the researcher visited governmental institutions such as the Sunyani Municipal Assembly, Environmental Protection Agencj as well as Ghana Education Service. Attention was paid to both published and unpublished 36 data either by these institutions or by other individuals. Such information was obtained from the dailies, journals, periodicals, policy Primary Sources Primary data in the study emanated from the participants in the study. It was obtained through interviews, structured direct observation, questionnaire and Criterion Referenced Test (CRT). The researcher interviewed some heads of institution to obtain data on how EE is carried out in their Schools and what is being done to promote good environmental management. This was done with the aid of an interview guide shown in Appendix 'C'. These questions were however not rigidly followed since an answer given to a question could generate a new question which would not necessarily be in the interview guide. A questionnaire (shown in Appendix 'B') was designed for teachers in the schools that were included in the study. This was to obtain data on how EE is done in the respective schools. It also gave data on the students' perception as well as bringing to the fore the impact EE is having on the students. To confirm or reject the expected responses on the effectiveness and impact of EE, the researcher conducted a Structured Direct Observation in the schools of the study. This instrument is shown in Appendix 'D'. 37 Sampling Procedure The survey objective was achieved by employing both probability and non-probability sampling teclmiques to obtain the required population for the study. Due to the nature of the study, simple random as well as purposive sampling teclmiques was adopted to obtain the required data. This ensured that, data collected is the required ones and could be used to represent the entire population. Simple random sampling was used in selecting the second cycle schools as well as the respondents from these schools. The purposive sampling was useful in view of known officers who were interviewed. Population The anticipated population for the study was as follows: o All SS 3 students from all the Second Cycle Schools in the Sunyani Municipality. o All Social Studies teachers from all the Second Cycle Schools in the Sunyani Municipality. o All Heads of Second Cycle Schools in the Sunyani Municipality. Sample Out of the anticipated population, the sample that was used for the study is: • • One Hundred and Sixty-nine (169) SS 3 students selected from four of the eight Secondary Schools Eight (8) teachers selected from four of the eight Secondary Schools 38 • Four (4) heads of selected Secondary School Research Instruments In view of the nature of the topic of study, it was realized that, Questionnaire, Criterion Referenced Test (CRT), Interview and Structured Direct Observation were the most appropriate and efficient instruments for obtaining data for the study. Consequently, a thirty-two (32) item questionnaire (shown in Appendix 'B') was developed for teachers of the study area. This questionnaire had six (6) Modules. The first module elicited data of the background of respondents. Module two (2) was about EE in the school curriculum. Module three (3) sought to obtain data on how EE was carried out in the classroom and the role of the teacher. The fourth Module was concerned with students' attitude to EE lessons. Module five (5) was aimed at eliciting the effectiveness of EE in the Senior Secondary Schools from the teachers' perspective. In the sixth module, the teachers were given the chance to give general comments on EE and what could be done to improve the situation. A Criterion Referenced Test dubbed "Environmental Knowledge Test" (EKT) was designed to seek data on students' achievement in EE. A 35 item EKT was used to determine the extent of attainment of the cognitive objectives spelt out in the syllabus of Social Studies (MoE, 2005). As shown in Appendix 'A', these questions were grouped under four main headings. To ensure conformity to the standards of educational assessment, the researcher decided not to set new 39 questions but selected them out of a set of multiple choice test found in the Social Studies Text Book (Social Studies for Senior Secondary School). This instrument also requested for background information. The purpose was for the researcher to be able to compare the students categorized by sex, programme ofstudy and school. An interview guide, which contained seven open-ended questions, was also developed. These questions were directed at heads of the Senior Secondary Schools that were used for the study. It sought to obtain data on EE in the school curriculum and what the schools were doing to promote it. It was also to help in confirming or rejecting the responses of teachers on how EE was carried out in the schools. The Structured Direct Observation was based on ten (10) guidelines. The purpose was to observe the environment of these schools in order to be able to link the responses of the respondents to what was visible in the compounds. Administration of Instruments In order to obtain data on the Secondary Schools in the Sunyani Municipality, the researcher as a first step visited the offices of the Municipal Directorate of Education. Based on information obtained, the researcher was able to select the schools to be used in the research through a Simple Random Sampling. A visit was also made to the schools to seek permission from the various heads of institution and to arrange dates for the exercise. In the course of this the, 40 researcher had to make changes in the schools that were to have been used based on the simple random sampling. This was caused by the fact tha~ one of the schools turned down the offer to be used for the study with the reason that, the students were scattered due to a strike action by the teachers. The researcher had to fall on Chiraa Secondary School, which was initially not part of the Schools sampled for the exercise. On the scheduled dates, the researcher personally visited the four schools that were used. All the dates were in May 2005, a time when the SSS three students were assumed to have completed the syllabus and were revising to write their Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSSCE). In selecting the student respondents, a simple random sampling was used. In all the SSS three (3) classes, the class list was obtained and the respondents were selected from it. Initially most of the students were reluctant to participate. To them, it could be a ploy by their teachers to examine them and take the scores for something else. However, after the researcher had explained the purpose of exercise to them, majority of them agreed to participate. Others who were still not willing to take part gave the excuse that they were not prepared. As a result the gender and other background characteristics of the student respondents were not even. During the EKT administration, the students were advised to be objective and honest in their responses and also to do independent work. There was no time limit set for the completion of the EKT thus allowing the respondents anlple time to exhibit their highest possible levels of environmental knowledge. 41 The EKT was scored by awarding a point for each correct response and zero for an incorrect alternative. Thus, respondents could score a ma: